Indoor and outdoor fine particulate matter and carbon monoxide concentrations in homes of infants in Nairobi, Kenya

Bibliographic Data

ID19592162
AuthorsVincent K Kipter (0000-0002-5497-1334, University of Nairobi), Faridah Hussein Were (0000-0002-4574-5108, University of Nairobi), Michael Gatari (0000-0001-9193-6901, University of Nairobi), Christopher Zuidema (0000-0002-2233-2706, University of Washington), Edmund Y W Seto (University of Washington), Orly Stampfer (0000-0003-2309-1235, University of Washington), Barbra A Richardson (0000-0001-9564-1828, University of Washington), Bernard Makau, Bernard W Makau (Kenyatta National Hospital), Priscilla Wanini Edemba (Kenyatta National Hospital), Emily Adhiambo (0009-0000-9134-827X, Kenyatta National Hospital), Julian D Marshall (0000-0003-4087-1209, University of Washington), Timothy V Larson (0000-0003-2208-982X, University of Washington), Catherine J Karr (0000-0002-4683-2270, University of Washington), Elizabeth Maleche-Obimbo, Elizabeth Maleche‐Obimbo (0000-0001-7871-3367), Sarah Benki-Nugent (0000-0002-3564-6245, University of Washington), Anne M Riederer (0000-0001-9905-5412, University of Washington, corresponding author)
EditorsChangwoo Han (0000-0002-5127-4680)
Year2026
Volume6
Issue4
Pagese0006202
Publication date2026-04-06
Peer ReviewedYes
Open AccessYes
TypeARTICLE
VenuePLOS Global Public Health (JOURNAL)
Journal identifiersISSN: 2767-3375 • E-ISSN: 2767-3375
PublisherPublic Library of Science (PLoS) (PUBLISHER)
DOI10.1371/journal.pgph.0006202
PMID41941505
OpenAlexW7150707724
LanguageEN
References cited41

Early life exposure to air pollution is associated with adverse health outcomes in children however few studies have investigated children’s air pollution exposures in urban settings in sub-Saharan Africa (SSA). We measured fine particulate matter (PM 2.5 ) and carbon monoxide (CO) in homes of infants in Nairobi, Kenya and conducted exploratory analysis of exposure factors. Questionnaires captured household characteristics and self-reported air pollution exposures. Indoor and outdoor 24-hour (24 h) concentrations were measured inside and 1 m outside the house. PM 2.5 was sampled using standard gravimetric procedures; CO was measured with direct-reading electrochemical sensors. Forty-eight homes were sampled at median infant age 11.5 months (range 0.8-26.2 months). During sampling, 66.7%, 18.8%, 10.4% and 10.4% of mothers, respectively, reported using liquefied petroleum gas (LPG), ethanol, electricity, and kerosene for cooking. Median indoor and outdoor 24 h PM 2.5 concentrations (n = 39) were 39.9 ug/m 3 (range, 12.8-519.6 ug/m 3 ) and 23.3 ug/m 3 (range, 2.6-68.2 ug/m 3 ), respectively. Most PM 2.5 concentrations (97% of indoor; 79% of outdoor) exceeded the World Health Organization (WHO) 24 h air quality guideline (AQG) of 15 ug/m 3 . Median indoor (n = 47) and outdoor (n = 41) 24 h mean CO concentrations were 0.7 ppm (range, 0-33.9 ppm) and 0.0 ppm (range, 0-1.0 ppm), respectively. Mean indoor CO concentrations exceeded the WHO 24 h AQG of 6.2 ppm in 9% of homes. Despite frequent use of cooking fuels considered to be clean such as LPG and ethanol, PM 2.5 and CO levels in infant homes in urban SSA often exceeded the WHO AQGs. Expanded studies of children’s air pollution exposures in urban SSA are needed to build awareness and inform policy

Air pollution · Air quality index · Indoor air quality · Kerosene · Liquefied petroleum gas · Particulates · Air Quality and Health Impacts · Child Nutrition and Water Access · Energy and Environment Impacts · Pollution