Parental self-evaluations by gender and social class

Shared parenting ideals, male breadwinner norms, and mothers' higher evaluation standards

Bibliographic Data

ID2092882
AuthorsPatrick Ishizuka (0000-0002-7780-0976, Washington University in St. Louis, corresponding author)
Year2025
Volume128
Pages103156
Publication date2025-05-01
Peer ReviewedYes
Open AccessYes
TypeARTICLE
VenueSocial Science Research (JOURNAL)
Journal identifiersISSN: 0049-089X • E-ISSN: 1096-0317
PublisherElsevier BV (PUBLISHER)
DOI10.1016/j.ssresearch.2025.103156
OpenAlexW4407996723
LanguageEN
Citations received2
References cited55

Cultural norms that define “good” parenting are central to sociological explanations of gender inequality among parents and social class differences in parental investments in children. Yet, little is known about how mothers and fathers of different social classes evaluate their success as parents and what predicts those assessments. Using data from the Future of Families and Child Wellbeing Study, this study examines how caregiving and breadwinning are tied to parents’ self-evaluations by gender and social class. Results show that intensive parenting activities and full-time employment strongly predict more positive self-evaluations for mothers and fathers, reflecting gender symmetry in core cultural expectations of parents. However, earnings, homeownership, and overwork positively predict self-evaluations for fathers only, and mothers evaluate themselves more negatively than fathers at the same level of involvement and financial provision. Finally, intensive parenting activities similarly positively predict self-evaluations for more- and less-educated parents. Findings highlight challenges to meeting cultural expectations of modern parenthood, particularly for mothers and economically disadvantaged parents

Class (philosophy) · Developmental psychology · Computer Science · Family Dynamics and Relationships · Gender, Labor, and Family Dynamics · Psychology · Work-Family Balance Challenges