Jan H Hulstijn
Datos Biográficos
| ID | 455875 |
|---|---|
| NOMBRE | Jan H Hulstijn |
| NOMBRES | Jan H |
| APELLIDO | Hulstijn |
| FIRMA | HULSTIJN J H |
| AFILIACIONES | University of Amsterdam |
| ORCID | 0000-0001-5862-8800 |
| VERIFICADO | Sí |
| TOTAL DE OBRAS | 35 |
| TOTAL DE CITAS | 184 |
| TOTAL COMO AUTOR | 35 |
| TOTAL COMO EDITOR | 0 |
| PRIMER AÑO DE PUBLICACIÓN | 1984 |
| AÑO MÁS RECIENTE DE PUBLICACIÓN | 2025 |
| ÍNDICE H | 8 |
Response to Open Peer Commentaries of Hulstijn’s (2024) Update of BLC Theory
In this article, I respond to six peer commentaries of my essay in Languages 2024, containing an update of BLC Theory. I address the following issues: embedding BLC Theory in more than one metatheory; the match between the theory and usage-based models; the importance of processing pressures; the distinction between BLC and ELC; the study of heritage languages; the roles of cognitive factors in L1 and L2 attainment
Predictions of Individual Differences in the Acquisition of Native and Non-Native Languages
BLC Theory proposes that individual differences (IDs) in language proficiency (in both native and non-native speakers) can poorly be mapped on a single proficiency scale. Instead, IDs can best be understood and studied in terms of two fundamentally different dimensions: (1) the cognition of oral language (receptive and productive speech processing) and (2) the cognition of the written language (reading and writing). This paper presents an update …
An Individual-Differences Framework for Comparing Nonnative With Native Speakers
This article proposes basic (shared) and extended (nonshared) language cognition in native speakers as a function of two types of extralinguistic attributes: (a) degree of being multilingual and (b) variables related to amount and type of literacy experiences (e.g., level of education). This approach may throw new light on the question of whether bilinguals can attain complete or native proficiency in two (or more) languages and the question of w…
Professional and non-professional raters’ responsiveness to fluency and accuracy in L2 speech
It is general practice to use rater judgments in speaking proficiency testing. However, it has been shown that raters’ knowledge and experience may influence their ratings, both in terms of leniency and varied focus on different aspects of speech. The purpose of this study is to identify raters’ relative responsiveness to fluency and linguistic accuracy in an occupational context, and to investigate whether professional and non-professional rater…
Explaining phenomena of first and second language acquisition with the constructs of implicit and explicit learning
This chapter examines to what extent Krashen’s (1981) distinction between acquired (implicit) and learned (explicit) knowledge can be upheld from a usage-based view on first and second language learning and in the light of recent advancement in (neuro)cognitive research on artificial grammar learning, statistical learning, and modelling implicit and explicit learning. It is proposed that, generally, two-system theories (e.g. implicit/explicit, de…
Second language fluency
In second language (L2) research and testing, measures of oral fluency are used as diagnostics for proficiency. However, fluency is also determined by personality or speaking style, raising the question to what extent L2 fluency measures are valid indicators of L2 proficiency. In this study, we obtained a measure of L2 (Dutch) proficiency (vocabulary knowledge), L2 fluency measures, and fluency measures that were corrected for first language beha…
Orders and Sequences in the Acquisition of L2 Morphosyntax, 40 Years On
This Special Issue of Language Learning provides a state-of-the-art overview of current perspectives on acquisition orders and sequences in second language acquisition. It contains examples of empirical studies, theoretical reflections of, and a dialogue between proponents of Dynamic Systems Theory, Learner Varieties, Processibility Theory, Processing Determinism, Sociocultural Theory, and Usage-Based Linguistics. This introduction presents the c…
Language Proficiency in Native and Non-native Speakers
This book, written for both seasoned and novice researchers, presents a theory of what is called Basic and Higher Language Cognition (BLC and HLC), a theory aimed at making some fundamental issues concerning first and second language learning and bilingualism (more) empirical. The first part of the book provides background for and explication of the theory as well as an agenda for future research, while the second part reports on selected studies…
The Common European Framework of Reference for Languages
The Common European Framework of Reference for Languages (CEFR, Council of Europe, 2001) currently functions as an instrument for educational policy and practice. The view of language proficiency on which it is based and the six proficiency levels it defines lack empirical support from language-use data. Several issues need to be investigated collaboratively by researchers working in the fields of first and second language acquisition, corpus lin…
Visual and auditory digit-span performance in native and non-native speakers
We compared 121 native and 114 non-native speakers of Dutch (with 35 different first languages) on four digit-span tasks, varying modality (visual/auditory) and direction (forward/backward). An interaction was observed between nativeness and modality, such that, while natives performed better than the non-natives on the auditory tasks (which were performed in the non-natives’ second language), performance on the visual tasks (which was performed …
Bridging the Gap
For some, research in learning and teaching of a second language (L2) runs the risk of disintegrating into irreconcilable approaches to L2 learning and use. On the one side, we find researchers investigating linguistic-cognitive issues, often using quantitative research methods including inferential statistics; on the other side, we find researchers working on the basis of sociocultural or sociocognitive views, often using qualitative research me…
Linguistic skills and speaking fluency in a second language
This study investigated how individual differences in linguistic knowledge and processing skills relate to individual differences in speaking fluency. Speakers of Dutch as a second language ( N = 179) performed eight speaking tasks, from which several measures of fluency were derived such as measures for pausing, repairing, and speed (mean syllable duration). In addition, participants performed separate tasks, designed to gauge individuals’ secon…
Is the Second Language Acquisition discipline disintegrating
After characterizing the study of second language acquisition (SLA) from three viewpoints, I try to answer the question, raised by DeKeyser (2010), of whether the SLA field is disintegrating. In answering this question, I first propose a distinction between SLA as the relatively fundamental academic discipline and SLA as the relatively applied field of language education. Instead of portraying the field in terms of quantitative or laboratory stud…
Incidental Learning in Second Language Acquisition
The term incidental learning is used, in applied linguistics, to refer to the acquisition of a word or expression without the conscious intention to commit the element to memory, such as “picking up” an unknown word from listening to someone or from reading a text.
Facets of Speaking Proficiency
This study examined the componential structure of second-language (L2) speaking proficiency. Participants—181 L2 and 54 native speakers of Dutch—performed eight speaking tasks and six tasks tapping nine linguistic skills. Performance in the speaking tasks was rated on functional adequacy by a panel of judges and formed the dependent variable in subsequent analyses (structural equation modeling). The following independent variables were assessed s…
The construct of language proficiency in the study of bilingualism from a cognitive perspective
This article aims at revitalizing the debate concerning the measurement of language proficiency (LP) in the study of bilingualism (Grosjean, 1998). A review is presented of the way in which LP was measured in a corpus of 140 empirical papers published in volumes 1–14 (1998–2011) of the journal Bilingualism: Language and Cognition . In 55% of these papers, in which the assessment of LP as an independent or moderating variable was a necessary or pr…
Different speakers but same Language Acquisition Device
The article presents studies which examine the impact of level of education on the knowledge of language. A study of adult native speakers of Dutch discovered large individual differences in lexical memory, lexical fluency and lexical knowledge. Another study of Dutch native speakers showed that level of education (LoE)-low and senior participants performed significantly lower compared to LoE-high and younger participants, but the sizes of LoE an…
Linguistic competences of learners of Dutch as a second language at the B1 and B2 levels of speaking proficiency of the Common European Framework of Reference for Languages (Cefr)
This study examines the associations between the speaking proficiency of 181 adult learners of Dutch as a second language and their linguistic competences. Performance in eight speaking tasks was rated on a scale of communicative adequacy. After extrapolation of these ratings to the Overall Oral Production scale of the Common European Framework of Reference for Languages (CEFR) (Council of Europe, 2001), 80 and 30 participants (on average per spe…
Determinants of Success in Native and Non-Native Listening Comprehension
The goal of this study was to explain individual differences in both native and non-native listening comprehension; 121 native and 113 non-native speakers of Dutch were tested on various linguistic and nonlinguistic cognitive skills thought to underlie listening comprehension. Structural equation modeling was used to identify the predictors of individual differences in listening comprehension and to test for differences between the native and non…
Language Proficiency in Native and Nonnative Speakers
This article addresses the question of what language proficiency (LP) is, both theoretically and empirically. It does so by making a distinction, on one hand, between basic and higher language cognition and, on the other hand, between core and peripheral components of LP. The article furthermore critically examines the notion of level in most second language (L2) assessment scales, showing that it is confounded with people's intellectual function…
Linguistic Skills of Adult Native Speakers, as a Function of Age and Level of Education
This study assessed, in a sample of 98 adult native speakers of Dutch, how their lexical skills and their speaking proficiency varied as a function of their age and level of education and profession (EP). Participants, categorized in terms of their age (18–35, 36–50, and 51–76 years old) and the level of their EP (low versus high), were tested on their lexical knowledge, lexical fluency, and lexical memory, and they performed four speaking tasks,…
Modeling the Development of L1 and EFL Writing Proficiency of Secondary School Students
This longitudinal study investigates the development of writing proficiency in English as a foreign language (EFL), in contrast to the development of first language (L1) writing proficiency in Dutch L1, in a sample of almost 400 secondary school students in the Netherlands. Students performed several writing tasks in both languages in three consecutive years. Furthermore, data were collected about students' metacognitive and linguistic knowledge …
Learning L2 German Vocabulary Through Reading
This study investigated three techniques designed to increase the chances that second language (L2) readers look up and learn unfamiliar words during and after reading an L2 text. Participants in the study, 137 college students in Belgium (L1 = Dutch, L2 = German), were randomly assigned to one of four conditions, forming combinations of two between-subject factors: ± prereading test announcement and ± postreading vocabulary task. Comprehension q…
Unraveling the Componential Structure of Second‐Language Skills
Theoretical and Empirical Issues in the Study of Implicit and Explicit Second-Language Learning
There are good theoretical and educational reasons to place matters of implicit and explicit learning high on the agenda for SLA research. As for theoretical motivations, perhaps the most central issue in SLA theory construction in need of explanation is the differential success in one's first language (L1) and in one's second language (L2). Although acquisition of an L1 results in full mastery of the language (provided that children are exposed …
First Language and Second Language Writing
In this study the relative importance of linguistic knowledge, metacognitive knowledge, and fluency or accessibility of this linguistic knowledge in both first language (L1; Dutch) and second language (L2; English) writing was explored. Data were collected from 281 grade 8 students. Using structural equation modeling, the relative importance of the three components was studied and compared across L1 and L2 writing. The results showed that the flu…
Towards a unified account of the representation, processing and acquisition of second language knowledge
This article argues for the need to reconcile symbolist and connectionist accounts of (second) language learning by propounding nine claims, aimed at integrating accounts of the representation, processing and acquisition of second language (L2) knowledge. Knowledge representation is claimed to be possible both in the form of symbols and rules and in the form of networks with layers of hidden units representing knowledge in a distributed, subsymbo…
Bridging the Gap
For some, research in learning and teaching of a second language (L2) runs the risk of disintegrating into irreconcilable approaches to L2 learning and use. On the one side, we find researchers investigating linguistic-cognitive issues, often using quantitative research methods including inferential statistics; on the other side, we find researchers working on the basis of sociocultural or sociocognitive views, often using qualitative research me…
Metacognitive and Language-Specific Knowledge in Native and Foreign Language Reading Comprehension
This article gives the results of a study among 685 students in grades 6, 8 and 10 in the Netherlands to whom we administered grade-appropriate measures of reading comprehension and vocabulary knowledge in their native language (NL), Dutch, as well as, in grades 8 and 10, in English as a foreign language (EFL). All students answered the same questionnaire on (4 components of) metacognitive knowledge of reading. The aim was to explore the relative…
Language Proficiency in Native and Non-native Speakers
This book, written for both seasoned and novice researchers, presents a theory of what is called Basic and Higher Language Cognition (BLC and HLC), a theory aimed at making some fundamental issues concerning first and second language learning and bilingualism (more) empirical. The first part of the book provides background for and explication of the theory as well as an agenda for future research, while the second part reports on selected studies…
Determinants of Success in Native and Non-Native Listening Comprehension
The goal of this study was to explain individual differences in both native and non-native listening comprehension; 121 native and 113 non-native speakers of Dutch were tested on various linguistic and nonlinguistic cognitive skills thought to underlie listening comprehension. Structural equation modeling was used to identify the predictors of individual differences in listening comprehension and to test for differences between the native and non…
An Individual-Differences Framework for Comparing Nonnative With Native Speakers
This article proposes basic (shared) and extended (nonshared) language cognition in native speakers as a function of two types of extralinguistic attributes: (a) degree of being multilingual and (b) variables related to amount and type of literacy experiences (e.g., level of education). This approach may throw new light on the question of whether bilinguals can attain complete or native proficiency in two (or more) languages and the question of w…
Some Empirical Evidence for the Involvement Load Hypothesis in Vocabulary Acquisition
EFL learners in two countries participated in two parallel experiments testing whether retention of vocabulary acquired incidentally is contingent on amount of task-induced involvement. Short- and long-term retention of ten unfamiliar words was investigated in three learning tasks (reading comprehension, comprehension plus filling in target words, and composition-writing with target words) with varying "involvement loads"-various combinations of …
Grammatical Errors as a Function of Processing Constraints and Explicit Knowledge
The first question of this study deals with the influence of the factors Time Pressure (present or absent) and Focus of Attention (on information or on grammar) on the correct use of two Dutch word-order rules in the speech of 32 adult learners of that language. In an experimental repeated measures design using a story retelling task. Attention had a significant effect, but Time did not. The second question deals with the relation between explici…
Modeling the Development of L1 and EFL Writing Proficiency of Secondary School Students
This longitudinal study investigates the development of writing proficiency in English as a foreign language (EFL), in contrast to the development of first language (L1) writing proficiency in Dutch L1, in a sample of almost 400 secondary school students in the Netherlands. Students performed several writing tasks in both languages in three consecutive years. Furthermore, data were collected about students' metacognitive and linguistic knowledge …
Learning L2 German Vocabulary Through Reading
This study investigated three techniques designed to increase the chances that second language (L2) readers look up and learn unfamiliar words during and after reading an L2 text. Participants in the study, 137 college students in Belgium (L1 = Dutch, L2 = German), were randomly assigned to one of four conditions, forming combinations of two between-subject factors: ± prereading test announcement and ± postreading vocabulary task. Comprehension q…
Predictions of Individual Differences in the Acquisition of Native and Non-Native Languages
BLC Theory proposes that individual differences (IDs) in language proficiency (in both native and non-native speakers) can poorly be mapped on a single proficiency scale. Instead, IDs can best be understood and studied in terms of two fundamentally different dimensions: (1) the cognition of oral language (receptive and productive speech processing) and (2) the cognition of the written language (reading and writing). This paper presents an update …
Is the Second Language Acquisition discipline disintegrating
After characterizing the study of second language acquisition (SLA) from three viewpoints, I try to answer the question, raised by DeKeyser (2010), of whether the SLA field is disintegrating. In answering this question, I first propose a distinction between SLA as the relatively fundamental academic discipline and SLA as the relatively applied field of language education. Instead of portraying the field in terms of quantitative or laboratory stud…
Orders and Sequences in the Acquisition of L2 Morphosyntax, 40 Years On
This Special Issue of Language Learning provides a state-of-the-art overview of current perspectives on acquisition orders and sequences in second language acquisition. It contains examples of empirical studies, theoretical reflections of, and a dialogue between proponents of Dynamic Systems Theory, Learner Varieties, Processibility Theory, Processing Determinism, Sociocultural Theory, and Usage-Based Linguistics. This introduction presents the c…
Grammatical Errors as a Function of Processing Constraints and Explicit Knowledge
The first question of this study deals with the influence of the factors Time Pressure (present or absent) and Focus of Attention (on information or on grammar) on the correct use of two Dutch word-order rules in the speech of 32 adult learners of that language. In an experimental repeated measures design using a story retelling task. Attention had a significant effect, but Time did not. The second question deals with the relation between explici…
A Comparison Between the Information-Processing and the Analysis/Control Approaches to Language Learning1
Two cognitive approaches to first and second language learning are juxtaposed: (1) the information-processing framework, and (2) Bialystok's Analysis/Control framework. It is concluded that, to the extent that both frameworks are descriptive ‘metaphors’, it is impossible to choose between them on empirical grounds. The main differences between the two appears to be a difference in focus. The Analysis/Control framework seems to be equipped mainly …
Incidental Vocabulary Learning by Advanced Foreign Language Students
Dutch advanced students of French read a French short story in one of three text reading conditions: Marginal Glosses (provision of L1 translations of unknown words), Dictionary (opportunity to use a bilingual dictionary), or Control. After reading, students were tested for their recall of 16 words that had appeared either once or three times in the text. Support was found for the hypothesis that frequency of occurrence will foster incidental voc…
Metacognitive and Language-Specific Knowledge in Native and Foreign Language Reading Comprehension
This article gives the results of a study among 685 students in grades 6, 8 and 10 in the Netherlands to whom we administered grade-appropriate measures of reading comprehension and vocabulary knowledge in their native language (NL), Dutch, as well as, in grades 8 and 10, in English as a foreign language (EFL). All students answered the same questionnaire on (4 components of) metacognitive knowledge of reading. The aim was to explore the relative…
Intentional and incidental second language vocabulary learning
Introduction Most learners of a second language (L2) feel concerned with the burden of vocabulary learning and worry about the question of how to cope with the formidable task of learning thousands of words. This has been documented by a number of questionnaire, interview and case studies (Gu & Johnson, 1996; Jones, 1995; Lawson & Hogden, 1996; Porte, 1988; Sanaoui, 1995). Because of the sheer magnitude of the vocabulary learning task it is only …
Some Empirical Evidence for the Involvement Load Hypothesis in Vocabulary Acquisition
EFL learners in two countries participated in two parallel experiments testing whether retention of vocabulary acquired incidentally is contingent on amount of task-induced involvement. Short- and long-term retention of ten unfamiliar words was investigated in three learning tasks (reading comprehension, comprehension plus filling in target words, and composition-writing with target words) with varying "involvement loads"-various combinations of …
Towards a unified account of the representation, processing and acquisition of second language knowledge
This article argues for the need to reconcile symbolist and connectionist accounts of (second) language learning by propounding nine claims, aimed at integrating accounts of the representation, processing and acquisition of second language (L2) knowledge. Knowledge representation is claimed to be possible both in the form of symbols and rules and in the form of networks with layers of hidden units representing knowledge in a distributed, subsymbo…
Incidental and Intentional Learning
This chapter contains sections titled: Introduction Incidental and Intentional Learning in the Psychological Literature Empirical Studies on Incidental and Intentional L2 Vocabulary Learning Methodological Issues in Incidental and Intentional Vocabulary-Learning Studies Conclusions
Roles of linguistic knowledge, metacognitive knowledge and processing speed in L3, L2 and L1 reading comprehension
In this article we present an analysis of the relationship between L3 reading comprehension and its constituent skills for bilingual Dutch students for whom English is a third language(L3) compared to monolingual Dutch students for whom English is a second language(L2). An analogous analysis is made for their Dutch reading comprehension, Dutch being their L2 and L1 respectively. Participants are 13/14 year-old secondary school students. The point…
First Language and Second Language Writing
In this study the relative importance of linguistic knowledge, metacognitive knowledge, and fluency or accessibility of this linguistic knowledge in both first language (L1; Dutch) and second language (L2; English) writing was explored. Data were collected from 281 grade 8 students. Using structural equation modeling, the relative importance of the three components was studied and compared across L1 and L2 writing. The results showed that the flu…
Theoretical and Empirical Issues in the Study of Implicit and Explicit Second-Language Learning
There are good theoretical and educational reasons to place matters of implicit and explicit learning high on the agenda for SLA research. As for theoretical motivations, perhaps the most central issue in SLA theory construction in need of explanation is the differential success in one's first language (L1) and in one's second language (L2). Although acquisition of an L1 results in full mastery of the language (provided that children are exposed …
Unraveling the Componential Structure of Second‐Language Skills
Learning L2 German Vocabulary Through Reading
This study investigated three techniques designed to increase the chances that second language (L2) readers look up and learn unfamiliar words during and after reading an L2 text. Participants in the study, 137 college students in Belgium (L1 = Dutch, L2 = German), were randomly assigned to one of four conditions, forming combinations of two between-subject factors: ± prereading test announcement and ± postreading vocabulary task. Comprehension q…
Language Proficiency in Native and Nonnative Speakers
This article addresses the question of what language proficiency (LP) is, both theoretically and empirically. It does so by making a distinction, on one hand, between basic and higher language cognition and, on the other hand, between core and peripheral components of LP. The article furthermore critically examines the notion of level in most second language (L2) assessment scales, showing that it is confounded with people's intellectual function…
Linguistic Skills of Adult Native Speakers, as a Function of Age and Level of Education
This study assessed, in a sample of 98 adult native speakers of Dutch, how their lexical skills and their speaking proficiency varied as a function of their age and level of education and profession (EP). Participants, categorized in terms of their age (18–35, 36–50, and 51–76 years old) and the level of their EP (low versus high), were tested on their lexical knowledge, lexical fluency, and lexical memory, and they performed four speaking tasks,…
Modeling the Development of L1 and EFL Writing Proficiency of Secondary School Students
This longitudinal study investigates the development of writing proficiency in English as a foreign language (EFL), in contrast to the development of first language (L1) writing proficiency in Dutch L1, in a sample of almost 400 secondary school students in the Netherlands. Students performed several writing tasks in both languages in three consecutive years. Furthermore, data were collected about students' metacognitive and linguistic knowledge …
Incidental Learning in Second Language Acquisition
The term incidental learning is used, in applied linguistics, to refer to the acquisition of a word or expression without the conscious intention to commit the element to memory, such as “picking up” an unknown word from listening to someone or from reading a text.
Facets of Speaking Proficiency
This study examined the componential structure of second-language (L2) speaking proficiency. Participants—181 L2 and 54 native speakers of Dutch—performed eight speaking tasks and six tasks tapping nine linguistic skills. Performance in the speaking tasks was rated on functional adequacy by a panel of judges and formed the dependent variable in subsequent analyses (structural equation modeling). The following independent variables were assessed s…
The construct of language proficiency in the study of bilingualism from a cognitive perspective
This article aims at revitalizing the debate concerning the measurement of language proficiency (LP) in the study of bilingualism (Grosjean, 1998). A review is presented of the way in which LP was measured in a corpus of 140 empirical papers published in volumes 1–14 (1998–2011) of the journal Bilingualism: Language and Cognition . In 55% of these papers, in which the assessment of LP as an independent or moderating variable was a necessary or pr…
Different speakers but same Language Acquisition Device
The article presents studies which examine the impact of level of education on the knowledge of language. A study of adult native speakers of Dutch discovered large individual differences in lexical memory, lexical fluency and lexical knowledge. Another study of Dutch native speakers showed that level of education (LoE)-low and senior participants performed significantly lower compared to LoE-high and younger participants, but the sizes of LoE an…
Linguistic competences of learners of Dutch as a second language at the B1 and B2 levels of speaking proficiency of the Common European Framework of Reference for Languages (Cefr)
This study examines the associations between the speaking proficiency of 181 adult learners of Dutch as a second language and their linguistic competences. Performance in eight speaking tasks was rated on a scale of communicative adequacy. After extrapolation of these ratings to the Overall Oral Production scale of the Common European Framework of Reference for Languages (CEFR) (Council of Europe, 2001), 80 and 30 participants (on average per spe…
Determinants of Success in Native and Non-Native Listening Comprehension
The goal of this study was to explain individual differences in both native and non-native listening comprehension; 121 native and 113 non-native speakers of Dutch were tested on various linguistic and nonlinguistic cognitive skills thought to underlie listening comprehension. Structural equation modeling was used to identify the predictors of individual differences in listening comprehension and to test for differences between the native and non…
Linguistic skills and speaking fluency in a second language
This study investigated how individual differences in linguistic knowledge and processing skills relate to individual differences in speaking fluency. Speakers of Dutch as a second language ( N = 179) performed eight speaking tasks, from which several measures of fluency were derived such as measures for pausing, repairing, and speed (mean syllable duration). In addition, participants performed separate tasks, designed to gauge individuals’ secon…
Is the Second Language Acquisition discipline disintegrating
After characterizing the study of second language acquisition (SLA) from three viewpoints, I try to answer the question, raised by DeKeyser (2010), of whether the SLA field is disintegrating. In answering this question, I first propose a distinction between SLA as the relatively fundamental academic discipline and SLA as the relatively applied field of language education. Instead of portraying the field in terms of quantitative or laboratory stud…
The Common European Framework of Reference for Languages
The Common European Framework of Reference for Languages (CEFR, Council of Europe, 2001) currently functions as an instrument for educational policy and practice. The view of language proficiency on which it is based and the six proficiency levels it defines lack empirical support from language-use data. Several issues need to be investigated collaboratively by researchers working in the fields of first and second language acquisition, corpus lin…
Linguistics (32 obras) · Psychology (30 obras) · EFL/ESL Teaching and Learning (27 obras) · Second Language Acquisition and Learning (18 obras) · Computer Science (17 obras) · Cognitive psychology (16 obras) · Mathematics education (14 obras) · Cognition (13 obras) · Language proficiency (13 obras) · Vocabulary (12 obras)