Surveying New Battlegrounds

Cognitive warfare (CW) has emerged as a decisive battlespace in modern conflict, shifting the focus from physical terrain to the perceptions and resilience of societies. This article analyzes the Russian Federation's application of CW in Ukraine since 2013, contrasting it with the strategic concepts developed by the People's Republic of China (PRC). Russia's approach, rooted in Soviet-era maskirovka and reflexive control, integrates cyber operations, disinformation, and the use of non-state proxies, including private military companies, organized crime, and the Russian Orthodox Church, to destabilize adversaries and manufacture uncertainty. In response, Ukraine has demonstrated remarkable resilience through a whole-of-society mobilization, effectively countering Russian narratives and leveraging a volunteer IT Army. China's CW strategy emphasizes narrative dominance and systemic persuasion to achieve its goal of "winning without fighting". The article argues that while Russia's brute-force methods have revealed strategic weaknesses, China is learning from these mistakes. By narrowly focusing on conventional warfighting, some Western governments risk being outmaneuvered in this critical domain, making the lessons from Ukraine essential for understanding the future of global security

China · Dominance (genetics · Narrative · Persuasion · Reflexivity · Resilience (materials science · Cybersecurity and Cyber Warfare Studies · European and Russian Geopolitical Military Strategies · Military Strategy and Technology

• AI in hybrid conflicts

  Open Access•Mikea Manitra Ramalina Ranaivo, Ramalina Ranaivo Mikea Manitra et al.•Cogent Social Sciences•2026

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