Landmarks in Digital Religion

RELIGION ON THE INTERNET: RESEARCH PROSPECTS AND PROMISES. . Edited by Jeffrey K. Haddon and Douglas E. Cowan. Greenwich, CT: JAI, 2000. Pp. 300. RELIGION AND CYBERSPACE. . Edited by Morten Hojsgaard and Margit Warburg. London: Routledge, 2005. Pp. 224. Paperback, $54.99. WHEN RELIGION MEETS NEW MEDIA. By Heidi Campbell. London: Routledge, 2010. Pp. 232. Paperback, $54.99. DIGITAL RELIGION, SOCIAL MEDIA, AND CULTURE: PERSPECTIVES, PRACTICES, AND FUTURES. . Edited by Charles Ess, Pauline Hope Cheong, Peter Fischer-Nielsen, and Stefan Gelfgren. Lausanne: Peter Lang, 2012. Pp. 326. Paperback, $43.00. DIGITAL RELIGION: UNDERSTANDING RELIGIOUS PRACTICE IN DIGITAL MEDIA. . Edited by Heidi A. Campbell and Ruth Tsuria. London: Routledge, 2022. Pp. 308. Paperback, $51.99. The twenty-five years of digital religion scholarship, understood as the study of religious communities and practices as they intersect with digital media, platforms, and technological innovation (Evolvi 2021; Campbell 2024), invite critical reflection on the monographs that have significantly shaped the development of the field. Given that digital religion studies have evolved through the proliferation of spaces situated between religion, various media forms, and digital infrastructures, we argue that any reflection on foundational monographs must emphasize pivotal shifts or theoretical innovations captured within singular, defining contributions at this intersection. These contributions become visible when we examine foundational texts, theoretical frameworks, and empirical case studies that together suggest future directions for the field. Moreover, the relatively recent emergence of this field of study allows us to align the five foundational books with a clear timeline that parallels the development of modern Information Communication Technologies (ICTs). Foundational texts, those that can be considered primary references in digital religion studies, focus specifically on the “digital” as a transformative force. They explore how technological improvements impact religious identity at both the individual and collective levels, influence processes of community formation (both religious and nonreligious), and shape new articulations of faith within contemporary societies. In this regard, their scope is narrower than that of broader scholarship on religion and media (Hoover and Lundby 1997; Meyer and Moors 2005; Hoover 2006; Stout 2012). Nevertheless, digital religion studies have gained increasing significance in light of the intensifying integration of digital technologies into everyday life, especially with the emergence of practices associated with artificial intelligence (Simmerlein 2024). With the aim of identifying and discussing the most significant steps in the development of this discipline by also retracing the chronological emergence and impact of the different information technologies in this field, in this paper we take into account the following texts: Religion on the Internet: Research Prospects and Promises (2000); Religion and Cyberspace (2005); When Religion Meets New Media (2010); Digital Religion, Social Media, and Culture: Perspectives, Practices, and Futures (2012); Digital Religion: Understanding Religious Practice in Digital Media (2022). The book Religion on the Internet: Research Prospects and Promises (2000), edited by Jeffrey K. Hadden and Douglas E. Cowan, represents one of the earliest systematic investigations into the intersection of religion and cyberspace. This volume, published at the dawn of the internet era, compiles contributions from prominent social scientists, offering a multidisciplinary perspective on how religious organizations and individuals utilize digital platforms for expression, communication, and proselytization. The book serves as a foundational text in the study of online religion, addressing both the theoretical and methodological challenges inherent in the analysis of faith-based digital interactions. The work is structured into multiple sections, each examining different dimensions of religion in the digital sphere. The initial chapters focus on the methodological frameworks required to study online religious practices, acknowledging the complexities introduced by the fluid and decentralized nature of internet communities. These sections emphasize the need for innovative research methodologies that extend beyond traditional sociological and ethnographic approaches. The subsequent chapters explore how religious institutions and individual practitioners adapt their beliefs and practices to cyberspace, studying virtual worship, online religious discourse, and digital missionary activities. In particular, the book scrutinizes the role of religious propaganda on the internet, highlighting the ways in which digital platforms can be used to disseminate theological ideologies and mobilize faith-based movements. A significant contribution of this volume is its discussion on the pedagogical implications of integrating the internet into religious education. The authors evaluate how religious instruction is evolving in the digital age, considering both the opportunities and the ethical dilemmas posed by online learning environments. They also examine the extent to which internet-mediated religious experiences shape believers' spiritual identities and community affiliations, raising critical questions about the authenticity of virtual faith practices compared to traditional, offline worship. From a critical perspective, Religion on the Internet succeeds in providing a comprehensive and pioneering analysis of a then-emerging field of study. The editors effectively identify key areas for future research, including the nature of religious authority in online spaces, the impact of digital anonymity on faith-based interactions, and the formation of virtual religious communities. However, given the rapid technological advancements and the transformation of the internet since the book's publication in 2000, some of its discussions may now appear dated. The exponential growth of social media, the emergence of virtual reality religious experiences, and the increasing role of artificial intelligence in religious discourse were largely unforeseen at the time, necessitating updated scholarly inquiries to address these contemporary developments. Despite being twenty-five years old, Religion on the Internet remains a seminal work that laid the groundwork for subsequent research into digital religion. It provides invaluable insights into the early stages of religious engagement with the internet, making it an essential reference for scholars interested in the evolving relationship between faith and technology. Readers seeking a more current perspective; however, should supplement this work with more recent studies that incorporate the profound changes brought about by the Web 2.0 revolution and beyond. Let us reference Religion and Cyberspace (2005), edited by Morten T. Højsgaard and Margit Warburg, which introduces the metaphor of “waves” to describe the evolution of research into digital religion. On the one hand, it demonstrates that future frameworks for studying religion, beyond established sociological approaches to religion and technology, are deeply entangled with technological innovation. On the other hand, the book highlights how scholarship in the field emerges from ongoing technological advancements, with religious change increasingly seen as a response to a dynamically shifting media landscape. Crucially, the volume marks an early attempt to conceptualize religious practices as shaped by digital conditions, or, as we might describe them today, by media infrastructures and platform affordances. This continuum is particularly significant due to its introduction of the evolving phases of digital religion research, or the aforementioned “waves.” It also shows how a networked framing of digital religion helped to overcome earlier limitations in research methods and the delineation of objects of study. Most importantly, the “waves” metaphor directs attention to the coexistence of platforms and social media in contemporary religious expression. First, in terms of a shift from traditional to digital modes of expression; second, in terms of the facilitation of religious intensity and the adaptation of ritual practices, particularly among youth. Methodologically, this work foregrounds key areas of inquiry in digital religion studies, including religious authority, individual and collective identity, and processes of community formation. The significance of the book lies in two interwoven areas. First, it raises awareness of the complex positioning of online and offline religion in cyberspace, particularly as it opens up to alternative spiritualities and social media dynamics. Second, the volume makes explicit that without a grounding in cultural context, studies in this field risk being incomplete or misdirected. Heidi A. Campbell's When Religion Meets New Media (2010) presents a rigorous and nuanced exploration of how religious communities interact with and adapt to emerging media technologies. Rather than adopting a deterministic perspective that portrays religious groups as either fully embracing or rejecting new media, Campbell introduces a more intricate analysis, demonstrating how faith communities negotiate their engagement with technology in ways that align with their theological principles, historical experiences, and communal values. The study primarily focuses on Jewish, Muslim, and Christian communities, offering comparative insights into their digital adaptations and responses. A cornerstone of Campbell's analysis is the introduction of the Religious-Social Shaping of Technology (RSST), a re-adaptation of the Social Shaping of Technology by MacKenzie and Wajcman (1999). This methodological approach emphasizes the active role of religious groups in shaping their technological engagement. This model is built upon four key dimensions: (1) History and Tradition: by tracing historical patterns, Campbell elucidates how continuity and change operate within faith-based technological adaptations; (2) Core Beliefs and Values—The doctrinal foundations of a religious community play a significant role in determining how new media are perceived and integrated. Some technologies may be seen as enhancing religious practice, while others might be deemed antithetical to spiritual commitments; (3) Negotiation Processes—Religious communities engage in internal discourse to assess the implications of technological adoption; and (4) Communal Discourses—The narratives and rhetoric surrounding media adoption shape collective perceptions, creating a sense of continuity with traditional practices or a discourse of resistance and boundary maintenance. Through the RSST framework, Campbell challenges reductionist views of religious engagement with technology and highlights the agency of religious communities in shaping their own digital landscapes. This perspective moves beyond binary classifications and instead positions religious groups as active participants in an ongoing negotiation with media culture. The empirical component of the book further strengthens its theoretical contributions. Campbell examines specific case studies, such as the development of “kosher” cell phones within Orthodox Jewish communities, which restrict access to certain digital functionalities in accordance with religious regulations. Such examples illustrate the ways in which religious groups do not merely adopt technology as-is but instead modify and shape it to fit their theological and ethical frameworks. These case studies also reveal the diversity of religious responses to digital media, ranging from selective adaptation to innovative reinterpretation. From a critical standpoint, When Religion Meets New Media is a seminal contribution to the fields of digital religion, media studies, and religious sociology. Campbell's interdisciplinary approach effectively bridges communication studies and theological analysis, providing scholars with a robust framework for understanding how faith communities engage with technological change. Campbell's RSST framework remains relevant; ongoing research must build upon its foundations to address the transformations brought about by Web 2.0 and beyond. The edited volume Digital Religion, Social Media, and Culture: Perspectives, Practices, and Futures (2012) offers a comprehensive and interdisciplinary examination of the intersection between religion and digital communication. Edited by Pauline Hope Cheong, Peter Fischer-Nielsen, Stefan Gelfgren, and Charles Ess, this anthology brings together leading scholars in digital religion studies, providing empirical, theoretical, and historical insights into how religious beliefs, identities, and institutions are shaped and reshaped by new media technologies. As one of the early systematic inquiries into digital religion, the book provides a foundational framework for understanding religious adaptation to digital environments and the implications of social media on faith-based communities. The volume is organized into thematic sections, each addressing distinct but interrelated aspects of digital religion. The first section focuses on theoretical perspectives, offering conceptual frameworks for analyzing the relationship between religion and digital media. The contributors engage in critical debates concerning the mediation of religious identity, the transformation of traditional religious authority, and the emergence of virtual religious communities. They interrogate whether digital engagement represents a continuity of religious practice or a radical departure from established theological and institutional norms. The second section presents empirical studies that explore how various religious traditions, including Christianity, Islam, and Judaism, interact with digital media. Through qualitative and quantitative methodologies, the authors examine case studies that highlight diverse patterns of technological appropriation and adaptation. These studies demonstrate that digital platforms are not neutral spaces but are instead shaped by pre-existing religious discourses, cultural contexts, and institutional constraints. One of the recurring themes in this section is the tension between online religious engagement and offline religious authority, raising questions about the decentralization of spiritual leadership in digital spaces. A particularly compelling aspect of the book is its engagement with the concept of digital religious identity. The contributors analyze how individuals and groups negotiate their religious selfhood in online environments, where anonymity, interactivity, and global connectivity alter traditional mechanisms of religious socialization. The book examines how believers construct and perform religious identities in digital settings, leading to new forms of religious expression and belonging. These discussions contribute to broader scholarly conversations about the fluidity of identity in the digital age and the impact of media convergence on religious subjectivity. Another significant focus of the book is the reconfiguration of religious authority in the context of Web 2.0. The contributors explore how social media platforms challenge hierarchical structures within religious institutions, allowing for more participatory and decentralized modes of religious discourse. However, they also highlight how established religious authorities attempt to reclaim influence in digital environments through institutional branding, digital evangelism, and the strategic use of online platforms. This dialectic between institutional control and grassroots participation underscores the complexities of religious authority in the digital era. The book successfully bridges disciplinary boundaries, incorporating perspectives from religious studies, media studies, sociology, and anthropology, and remains an essential text for scholars and researchers examining the intersections of faith, media, and technology. Its interdisciplinary approach, empirical depth, and theoretical rigor make it a foundational work in the field of digital religion studies. While ongoing technological developments necessitate continuous scholarly engagement, the book provides critical insights into how religion is negotiated, contested, and reimagined in the digital age. Digital Religion: Understanding Religious Practice in Digital Media (2022) (2nd Edition), edited by Heidi A. Campbell and Ruth Tsuria, is not simply an updated edition of the original; rather, it offers a comprehensive, decade-spanning review of the development of digital religion, along with a practical and forward-looking vocabulary for the field. Three aspects in particular merit critical reflection: the book's scope, its methodological approach, and its content. Given that digital religion has emerged from interdisciplinary intersections between media studies, sociology, religious studies, and, more recently, AI studies, this volume demonstrates how such interdisciplinarity operates in practice. On the one hand, it clearly articulates the field's focus: the study of digital space as a domain in which religion is imagined, negotiated, and practiced. This process unfolds both within traditional religious frameworks and in alternative, lived religious contexts. On the other hand, the volume shows that the evolution of digital religion studies, across its different “waves,” is marked by an inherently multidimensional methodology. Particularly in the chapter by Knut Lundby and Giulia Evolvi, the volume engages theoretical developments such as media ecology and the concept of media environments while also addressing media mediation and the “third space” of religious communication. Their analysis includes reflections on hypermediation and is situated within the broader framework of the social shaping of technology, which offers a valuable analytical lens for the study of digital religion. The book's content remains highly relevant due to the wide range of topics it addresses—many of which either reframe central issues or synthesize the key dynamics of religious phenomena in digital settings. One major contribution concerns the transnational dimensions of religious authority online, particularly in Pauline Hope Cheong's chapter. Her analysis demonstrates not only that digital religious authority is actively negotiated but also that it is shaped by processes of both globalization and fragmentation. Another significant area of inquiry relates to identity and commemoration. On the one hand, authors such as Mia Lövheim and Evelina Lundmark explore how the identity-forming ecosystem of digital media positions the individual as an engaged and reflexive actor. On the other hand, Amanda Lagerkvist's work illuminates how digital identity persists beyond death, reframing our understanding of digital traces and offering a form of posthumous, embodied presence. In light of almost three dynamic decades of scholarship on Digital Religion, we aim with these books' excursus to effectively capture the key issues, debates, and landmark contributions that have marked pivotal shifts and innovations in the evolving interplay between religion and media in contemporary society. Over the years, the field has demonstrated how digital technologies actively shape and are shaped by religious beliefs, practices, institutions, and imaginaries. Within this framework, ICTs have emerged not only as central objects of inquiry but also as powerful instruments and methodological lenses through which to analyze the transformation of religious experience and expression in the digital age. From the construction of online sacred spaces to the algorithmic mediation of religious authority, from new forms of community and ritual to the ethical and ontological challenges posed by automation and virtuality, digital religion has become a site where broader cultural, social, and technological shifts are made visible and intelligible. Engaging with the critical contributions surveyed in the reflected books through their theoretical frameworks, methodological innovations, and in-depth case studies not only enables us to trace the genealogies of the field but also equips us with the tools to critically engage with its ongoing evolution. In particular, as we stand at the threshold of further technological transformations, especially those driven by artificial intelligence and machine learning, the insights from digital religion studies offer a crucial lens for understanding how emerging technologies continue to reshape the boundaries of the sacred, the religious subject, and the communal. In this sense, the field of Digital Religion does not merely reflect technological change. It actively engages in investigating the transformation of the sacred within our post-secular society. The hope is that the reflections offered here will serve not only as a synthesis of past and present developments but also as a foundation for future inquiry, inspiring new questions and perspectives: What is missing from these observations? And what are the emerging trends and directions that future research should pursue? Beginning to explore more deeply the transformation of sacred than on sacred examining the of AI religious incorporating the of space into current studies, particularly within that the and is one of the issues that new and of

History · Media, Religion, Digital Communication · Religious Tourism and Spaces · Social Media and Politics

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