Canopy openings in the Trans-Mexican Neovolcanic Belt

Canopy openings are key drivers of forest dynamics, influencing tree regeneration, species composition, and ecosystem resilience. However, their structural characteristics remain poorly quantified in Mexican forests, particularly in the Monarch Butterfly Biosphere Reserve (MBBR), where forest conservation is critical for maintaining the monarch butterfly’s wintering habitat. This study aimed to (i) quantify the size and density of canopy openings and the proportion of cleared area across management zones and forest types, (ii) assess their relationship with topographic factors, and (iii) determine their association with disturbances. Canopy openings were identified using the normalized difference vegetation index (NDVI) and Google Earth imagery. Results showed that core zones and Abies religiosa forests exhibited higher canopy opening density than buffer zones and pine-oak forests. The highest density of canopy openings occurred on gentle slopes (0-0.9°) and at high (>3000 m a.s.l.) and low (<2100 m a.s.l.) elevations. Northern aspects in A. religiosa forests and western aspects in core zones exhibited higher canopy opening densities and a greater proportion of cleared area. Canopy openings associated with pest outbreaks were the most frequent disturbance type across both management zones and forest types. Most canopy openings were located within ejidos, where regulated timber harvesting is allowed. Overall, canopy opening patterns reflected the combined influence of natural and anthropogenic disturbances, providing spatial priorities for conservation by identifying core zones and Abies religiosa forests as areas where monitoring, early pest detection, and rapid management responses should be concentrated to preserve forest integrity and monarch butterfly overwintering habitat.

Biosphere · Canopy · Nature reserve · Relevance (law) · Vegetation (pathology) · Ecology and Vegetation Dynamics Studies · Environmental and Cultural Studies in Latin America and Beyond · Tree-ring climate responses

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