Kai Epstude
Biographic Data
| ID | 107533 |
|---|---|
| NAME | Kai Epstude |
| GIVEN NAMES | Kai |
| FAMILY NAME | Epstude |
| SIGNATURE | EPSTUDE K |
| AFFILIATIONS | University of Groningen |
| ORCID | 0000-0001-9817-3847 |
| VERIFIED | Yes |
| TOTAL WORKS | 27 |
| TOTAL CITATIONS | 124 |
| AUTHOR COUNT | 27 |
| EDITOR COUNT | 0 |
| FIRST PUBLICATION YEAR | 2004 |
| LATEST PUBLICATION YEAR | 2026 |
| H-INDEX | 4 |
Lay Attributions of Conspiracy Beliefs Predict Intentions to Correct Conspiracy Believers
What do laypeople think causes conspiracy beliefs? In six correlational studies ( N = 2,024) and a qualitative study ( N = 190), we examined laypeople’s attributions of others’ conspiracy beliefs and how these attributions predict their intentions to correct conspiracy believers. Attribution research suggests that dispositional (vs. situational) attributions should dominate lay beliefs and negatively predict correction intentions. Dispositional a…
Need Fulfillment During Intergroup Contact: Three Experience Sampling Studies
One challenge of modern intergroup contact research has been the question of when and why an interaction is perceived as positive and improves intergroup relations. We propose to consider the perceived fulfillment of the situationally most relevant need. We conducted three intensive longitudinal studies with recent migrants to capture their interactions with the majority out-group ( N measurements = 10,297; N participants = 207). The situational …
A Gentle Introduction and Application of Feature-Based Clustering with Psychological Time Series
Psychological researchers and practitioners collect increasingly complex time series data aimed at identifying differences between the developments of participants or patients. Past research has proposed a number of dynamic measures that describe meaningful developmental patterns for psychological data (e.g., instability, inertia, linear trend). Yet, commonly used clustering approaches are often not able to include these meaningful measures (e.g.…
Do We Regret Group Actions More Than Group Inactions: The Action Effect in Group-Based Regret
Do we regret group actions more than group inactions? Examining this, we conducted three experiments focusing on the stalemate in the US Congress over Ukraine aid in 2024. We described this stalemate as having negative consequences and whether this was decided actively or passively. Although study-specific results showed a mixed pattern, exploratory integrative data analysis across the three experiments yielded a small action effect in group-base…
When are leaders blamed for bad events that never happened? Partisanship and close counterfactual catastrophes
How much blame do leaders deserve for counterfactual catastrophes : disasters that could have occurred under their watch but never did? We propose that when people oppose (vs. support) a leader, they are more likely to answer this question by considering how close the catastrophe came to occurring. In two preregistered experiments (total N = 1927), U.S. participants assigned greater blame for counterfactual catastrophes (e.g., an imagined nuclear…
Continuity and change
The European Journal of Social Psychology (EJSP) has been a key outlet for social psychological research across the world for more than 50 years. The myriad changes that have occurred in the last half-century continue to present the field, and EJSP more specifically, with a number of opportunities and challenges. In terms of opportunities, new social and political environments continue to spur innovation in topics, research practices and in the s…
If only I had not fallen down the rabbit hole: Counterfactual thinking reduces engagement with conspiracy theories
Empathising with masked targets: Limited side effects of face masks on empathy for dynamic, context-rich stimuli
Multiple studies revealed detrimental effects of face masks on communication, including reduced empathic accuracy and enhanced listening effort. Yet, extant research relied on artificial, decontextualised stimuli, which prevented assessing empathy under more ecologically valid conditions. In this preregistered online experiment (N = 272), we used film clips featuring targets reporting autobiographical events to address motivational mechanisms und…
Should I have been more careful or less careless? The comparative nature of counterfactual thoughts alters judgments of their impact
Grandiose narcissism shapes counterfactual thinking (and regret): Direct and indirect evidence
Little is known about how individuals high in grandiose narcissism think about what could have been. Across four studies (three online surveys and one online experiment; N = 801), we addressed this gap by examining the relationship between grandiose narcissism, its admiration and rivalry dimensions, and counterfactual thinking and regret. Unlike anticipated, high rivalry was associated with more rather than fewer upward counterfactuals in Study 1…
Old Tasks and New Urgency: A Look Back and a Look Ahead
A Longitudinal Study of Decision Making in the Process of Acquiring a Dog
To prevent potential problems in the relationship between people and their dogs, it is important to engage in a thoughtful decision-making process with regard to acquiring a dog. To map the most important elements in the decision-making process, a social cognitive model was applied using seven psychological constructs: perceived advantages of having a dog; perceived disadvantages; the social norm; self-efficacy; optimism; expected commitment; and…
Moving Ahead
The Functional Theory of Counterfactual Thinking: New Evidence, New Challenges, New Insights
Do episodic counterfactual thoughts focus on controllable action: The role of self-initiation
Towards a Replicable and Relevant Social Psychology
Preaching to, or Beyond, the Choir: The Politicizing Effects of Fitting Value-Identity Communication in Ideologically Heterogeneous Groups
Although values motivate participation in collective action, little is known about whether their communication by a social movement motivates identification with it. In the context of student protests against budget cuts, we tested whether and how fitting a value (right to free education) to two relevant group identities (i.e., student vs. national identity) influenced politicized identification among individuals in ideologically different studen…
Regret and Counterfactual Thinking in the Face of Inevitability: The Case of HIV-Positive Men
Regret and counterfactual thoughts have been extensively studied in laboratory settings characterized by unlimited future options. Yet, evidence of counterfactual thought and its effects in real-life situations is scarce. The present study demonstrates the influence of regret and counterfactuals on HIV-seropositive individuals ( N = 182). Results show that HIV-specific regrets as well as counterfactuals exert negative influence on well-being. How…
Life Regrets and the Need to Belong
The present research documents a link between regret and the need to belong. Across five studies, using diverse methods and samples, the authors established that regrets involving primarily social relationships (e.g., romance and family) are felt more intensely than less socially based regrets (e.g., work and education). The authors ruled out alternative explanations for this pattern and found that it is best explained by the extent to which regr…
Mental time travel: A conceptual overview of social psychological perspectives on a fundamental human capacity
Humans have the unique capacity to mentally travel through time, that is, to reflect on the past, anticipate the future, and construct alternate realities in their minds. The ability to mentally travel through time affects a variety of social psychological topics. Representations of events can differ considerably, depending on the event's temporal location and distance from the present. Current emotions may be influenced by thoughts of future and…
Seeing love, or seeing lust: How people interpret ambiguous romantic situations
When Goal Pursuit Fails: The Functions of Counterfactual Thought in Intention Formation
Counterfactual thoughts predominantly occur in response to failed goal pursuit. The primary function of self-related counterfactuals seems to be correction of specific behaviors and preparation for future successful goal attainment. In the present article we describe a model that outlines this view of counterfactual thoughts. We focus specifically on automatic versus controlled processes of counterfactual thinking and their relation to the format…
What you feel is how you compare: How comparisons influence the social induction of affect
Concordant and discordant affective reactions can occur after the mere perception of another person's affective expression. Most previous theorizing has been concerned with the explanation of affective concordance, typically referred to as emotional contagion, although discordant affect has received little attention. The authors propose an integrative account for the explanation of both outcomes based on a social comparison framework. Studies 1 a…
How love and lust change people’s perception of relationship partners
The Functional Theory of Counterfactual Thinking
Counterfactuals are thoughts about alternatives to past events, that is, thoughts of what might have been. This article provides an updated account of the functional theory of counterfactual thinking, suggesting that such thoughts are best explained in terms of their role in behavior regulation and performance improvement. The article reviews a wide range of cognitive experiments indicating that counterfactual thoughts may influence behavior by e…
The Ups and Downs of Social Comparison: Mechanisms of Assimilation and Contrast
Social comparisons influence self-evaluations in multiple ways. Sometimes self-evaluations are assimilated toward a given standard. At other times, they are contrasted away from the standard. On the basis of the selective accessibility model (T. Mussweiler, 2003a), the authors hypothesized that assimilation results if judges engage in the comparison process of similarity testing and selectively focus on similarities to the standard, whereas contr…
The man who wasn't there: Subliminal social comparison standards influence self-evaluation
Life provides an endless stream of social comparison information. Because opportunities to compare with others are so abundant, social comparison theory traditionally assumes that people are selective in their comparison activities and primarily compare with deliberately selected standards. Recent research, however, demonstrates that social comparisons often occur spontaneously, even if no standard is explicitly provided or deliberately selected.…
How love and lust change people’s perception of relationship partners
When Goal Pursuit Fails: The Functions of Counterfactual Thought in Intention Formation
Counterfactual thoughts predominantly occur in response to failed goal pursuit. The primary function of self-related counterfactuals seems to be correction of specific behaviors and preparation for future successful goal attainment. In the present article we describe a model that outlines this view of counterfactual thoughts. We focus specifically on automatic versus controlled processes of counterfactual thinking and their relation to the format…
Do episodic counterfactual thoughts focus on controllable action: The role of self-initiation
Towards a Replicable and Relevant Social Psychology
Seeing love, or seeing lust: How people interpret ambiguous romantic situations
Preaching to, or Beyond, the Choir: The Politicizing Effects of Fitting Value-Identity Communication in Ideologically Heterogeneous Groups
Although values motivate participation in collective action, little is known about whether their communication by a social movement motivates identification with it. In the context of student protests against budget cuts, we tested whether and how fitting a value (right to free education) to two relevant group identities (i.e., student vs. national identity) influenced politicized identification among individuals in ideologically different studen…
A Longitudinal Study of Decision Making in the Process of Acquiring a Dog
To prevent potential problems in the relationship between people and their dogs, it is important to engage in a thoughtful decision-making process with regard to acquiring a dog. To map the most important elements in the decision-making process, a social cognitive model was applied using seven psychological constructs: perceived advantages of having a dog; perceived disadvantages; the social norm; self-efficacy; optimism; expected commitment; and…
Mental time travel: A conceptual overview of social psychological perspectives on a fundamental human capacity
Humans have the unique capacity to mentally travel through time, that is, to reflect on the past, anticipate the future, and construct alternate realities in their minds. The ability to mentally travel through time affects a variety of social psychological topics. Representations of events can differ considerably, depending on the event's temporal location and distance from the present. Current emotions may be influenced by thoughts of future and…
The Ups and Downs of Social Comparison: Mechanisms of Assimilation and Contrast
Social comparisons influence self-evaluations in multiple ways. Sometimes self-evaluations are assimilated toward a given standard. At other times, they are contrasted away from the standard. On the basis of the selective accessibility model (T. Mussweiler, 2003a), the authors hypothesized that assimilation results if judges engage in the comparison process of similarity testing and selectively focus on similarities to the standard, whereas contr…
The man who wasn't there: Subliminal social comparison standards influence self-evaluation
Life provides an endless stream of social comparison information. Because opportunities to compare with others are so abundant, social comparison theory traditionally assumes that people are selective in their comparison activities and primarily compare with deliberately selected standards. Recent research, however, demonstrates that social comparisons often occur spontaneously, even if no standard is explicitly provided or deliberately selected.…
The Functional Theory of Counterfactual Thinking
Counterfactuals are thoughts about alternatives to past events, that is, thoughts of what might have been. This article provides an updated account of the functional theory of counterfactual thinking, suggesting that such thoughts are best explained in terms of their role in behavior regulation and performance improvement. The article reviews a wide range of cognitive experiments indicating that counterfactual thoughts may influence behavior by e…
What you feel is how you compare: How comparisons influence the social induction of affect
Concordant and discordant affective reactions can occur after the mere perception of another person's affective expression. Most previous theorizing has been concerned with the explanation of affective concordance, typically referred to as emotional contagion, although discordant affect has received little attention. The authors propose an integrative account for the explanation of both outcomes based on a social comparison framework. Studies 1 a…
How love and lust change people’s perception of relationship partners
Seeing love, or seeing lust: How people interpret ambiguous romantic situations
When Goal Pursuit Fails: The Functions of Counterfactual Thought in Intention Formation
Counterfactual thoughts predominantly occur in response to failed goal pursuit. The primary function of self-related counterfactuals seems to be correction of specific behaviors and preparation for future successful goal attainment. In the present article we describe a model that outlines this view of counterfactual thoughts. We focus specifically on automatic versus controlled processes of counterfactual thinking and their relation to the format…
Life Regrets and the Need to Belong
The present research documents a link between regret and the need to belong. Across five studies, using diverse methods and samples, the authors established that regrets involving primarily social relationships (e.g., romance and family) are felt more intensely than less socially based regrets (e.g., work and education). The authors ruled out alternative explanations for this pattern and found that it is best explained by the extent to which regr…
Mental time travel: A conceptual overview of social psychological perspectives on a fundamental human capacity
Humans have the unique capacity to mentally travel through time, that is, to reflect on the past, anticipate the future, and construct alternate realities in their minds. The ability to mentally travel through time affects a variety of social psychological topics. Representations of events can differ considerably, depending on the event's temporal location and distance from the present. Current emotions may be influenced by thoughts of future and…
Regret and Counterfactual Thinking in the Face of Inevitability: The Case of HIV-Positive Men
Regret and counterfactual thoughts have been extensively studied in laboratory settings characterized by unlimited future options. Yet, evidence of counterfactual thought and its effects in real-life situations is scarce. The present study demonstrates the influence of regret and counterfactuals on HIV-seropositive individuals ( N = 182). Results show that HIV-specific regrets as well as counterfactuals exert negative influence on well-being. How…
Preaching to, or Beyond, the Choir: The Politicizing Effects of Fitting Value-Identity Communication in Ideologically Heterogeneous Groups
Although values motivate participation in collective action, little is known about whether their communication by a social movement motivates identification with it. In the context of student protests against budget cuts, we tested whether and how fitting a value (right to free education) to two relevant group identities (i.e., student vs. national identity) influenced politicized identification among individuals in ideologically different studen…
The Functional Theory of Counterfactual Thinking: New Evidence, New Challenges, New Insights
Do episodic counterfactual thoughts focus on controllable action: The role of self-initiation
Towards a Replicable and Relevant Social Psychology
Moving Ahead
A Longitudinal Study of Decision Making in the Process of Acquiring a Dog
To prevent potential problems in the relationship between people and their dogs, it is important to engage in a thoughtful decision-making process with regard to acquiring a dog. To map the most important elements in the decision-making process, a social cognitive model was applied using seven psychological constructs: perceived advantages of having a dog; perceived disadvantages; the social norm; self-efficacy; optimism; expected commitment; and…
Old Tasks and New Urgency: A Look Back and a Look Ahead
Grandiose narcissism shapes counterfactual thinking (and regret): Direct and indirect evidence
Little is known about how individuals high in grandiose narcissism think about what could have been. Across four studies (three online surveys and one online experiment; N = 801), we addressed this gap by examining the relationship between grandiose narcissism, its admiration and rivalry dimensions, and counterfactual thinking and regret. Unlike anticipated, high rivalry was associated with more rather than fewer upward counterfactuals in Study 1…
Empathising with masked targets: Limited side effects of face masks on empathy for dynamic, context-rich stimuli
Multiple studies revealed detrimental effects of face masks on communication, including reduced empathic accuracy and enhanced listening effort. Yet, extant research relied on artificial, decontextualised stimuli, which prevented assessing empathy under more ecologically valid conditions. In this preregistered online experiment (N = 272), we used film clips featuring targets reporting autobiographical events to address motivational mechanisms und…
Should I have been more careful or less careless? The comparative nature of counterfactual thoughts alters judgments of their impact
Need Fulfillment During Intergroup Contact: Three Experience Sampling Studies
One challenge of modern intergroup contact research has been the question of when and why an interaction is perceived as positive and improves intergroup relations. We propose to consider the perceived fulfillment of the situationally most relevant need. We conducted three intensive longitudinal studies with recent migrants to capture their interactions with the majority out-group ( N measurements = 10,297; N participants = 207). The situational …
A Gentle Introduction and Application of Feature-Based Clustering with Psychological Time Series
Psychological researchers and practitioners collect increasingly complex time series data aimed at identifying differences between the developments of participants or patients. Past research has proposed a number of dynamic measures that describe meaningful developmental patterns for psychological data (e.g., instability, inertia, linear trend). Yet, commonly used clustering approaches are often not able to include these meaningful measures (e.g.…
Do We Regret Group Actions More Than Group Inactions: The Action Effect in Group-Based Regret
Do we regret group actions more than group inactions? Examining this, we conducted three experiments focusing on the stalemate in the US Congress over Ukraine aid in 2024. We described this stalemate as having negative consequences and whether this was decided actively or passively. Although study-specific results showed a mixed pattern, exploratory integrative data analysis across the three experiments yielded a small action effect in group-base…
When are leaders blamed for bad events that never happened? Partisanship and close counterfactual catastrophes
How much blame do leaders deserve for counterfactual catastrophes : disasters that could have occurred under their watch but never did? We propose that when people oppose (vs. support) a leader, they are more likely to answer this question by considering how close the catastrophe came to occurring. In two preregistered experiments (total N = 1927), U.S. participants assigned greater blame for counterfactual catastrophes (e.g., an imagined nuclear…
Continuity and change
The European Journal of Social Psychology (EJSP) has been a key outlet for social psychological research across the world for more than 50 years. The myriad changes that have occurred in the last half-century continue to present the field, and EJSP more specifically, with a number of opportunities and challenges. In terms of opportunities, new social and political environments continue to spur innovation in topics, research practices and in the s…
Psychology (23 works) · Social Psychology (17 works) · Behavioral Health and Interventions (14 works) · Cognitive psychology (14 works) · Social Psychology (11 works) · Counterfactual thinking (9 works) · Social and Intergroup Psychology (9 works) · Counterfactual conditional (8 works) · Cultural Differences and Values (8 works) · Computer Science (7 works)