Robert R Sokal
Biographic Data
| ID | 109882 |
|---|---|
| NAME | Robert R Sokal |
| GIVEN NAMES | Robert R |
| FAMILY NAME | Sokal |
| SIGNATURE | SOKAL R R |
| AFFILIATIONS | State University of New York |
| VERIFIED | No |
| TOTAL WORKS | 35 |
| TOTAL CITATIONS | 239 |
| AUTHOR COUNT | 35 |
| EDITOR COUNT | 0 |
| FIRST PUBLICATION YEAR | 1980 |
| LATEST PUBLICATION YEAR | 2012 |
| H-INDEX | 10 |
Historical Population Movements in Europe Influence Genetic Relationships in Modern Samples
We have newly constructed an ethnohistorical database consisting of 3460 records of ethnic locations and movements in Europe since 2200 B.C. Using this database, we computed vectors of proportions that peoples speaking various language families contributed to the gene pools of 2216 1 degree x 1 degree land-based quadrats of Europe. From these vectors we computed ethnohistorical distances as arc distances between all pairs of quadrats. We used the…
Ancient Movement Patterns Determine Modern Genetic Variances in Europe
A summary ethnohistory database on population movements in Europe between 2000 B.C. and A.D. 1970 was related to genetic variances and distances based on 26 genetic systems. For the purposes of these analyses, Europe was divided into 85 terrestrial quadrats measuring 5° × 5°. Counts, stratified by time, were taken of the number of movements out of and into each quadrat (called source and target counts, respectively) and between each pair of quadr…
Historical Population Movements in Europe Influence Genetic Relationships in Modern Samples
We have newly constructed an ethnohistorical database consisting of 3460 records of ethnic locations and movements in Europe since 2200 B.C. Using this database, we computed vectors of proportions that peoples speaking various language families contributed to the gene pools of 2216 1° × 1° land-based quadrats of Europe. From these vectors we computed ethnohistorical distances as arc distances between all pairs of quadrats. We used these distances…
Ancient Movement Patterns Determine Modern Genetic Variances in Europe
A summary ethnohistory database on population movements in Europe between 2000 B.C. and A.D. 1970 was related to genetic variances and distances based on 26 genetic systems. For the purposes of these analyses, Europe was divided into 85 terrestrial quadrats measuring 5 degrees x 5 degrees. Counts, stratified by time, were taken of the number of movements out of and into each quadrat (called source and target counts, respectively) and between each…
A Classification of European Populations Based on Gene Frequencies and Cranial Measurements: A Map-Quadrat Approach
Classifications of European populations were produced based on 59 gene frequencies and 10 cranial measurements, but recorded for different population samples. A map-quadrat approach circumvented the problem of noncorrespondence of sampling localities. Clustering by standard numerical taxonomic procedures shows that these data are represented poorly as hierarchic classifications, but are associated with geographic regions. The agreement between cl…
A Sketch of My Scientific Autobiography
A Sketch of My Scientific Autobiography Robert R. Sokal1 I was born in 1926 in Vienna, Austria. I stem from a very typical bourgeois Jewish family, probably not all that different from non-Jewish middle-class families in Vienna. My father was a paint merchant. He owned a small chain of paint stores and a little manufactory, not big enough to be dignified by the name factory, for producing paint. As to my ancestors—most Jewish people when asked co…
Worldwide Analysis of Genetic and Linguistic Relationships of Human Populations
In this study we relate language differences on a global scale with genetic distances for the same populations. The analysis is carried out on more populations (130) but fewer genetic systems (11) than earlier studies. We constructed an overall genetic distance matrix that allowed for missing values. A separate genetic distance matrix was also computed for each genetic system, and matching matrices of linguistic and geographic distances were asso…
A Problem with Synthetic Maps
Synthetic maps of human gene frequencies, which are maps of principal component scores based on correlation of interpolated surfaces, have been popularized widely by L. Cavalli-Sforza, P. Menozzi, and A. Piazza. Such maps are used to make ethnohistorical inferences or to support various demographic or historical hypotheses. We show from first principles and by analyses of real and simulated data that synthetic maps are subject to large errors and…
Population structure inferred by local spatial autocorrelation: An example from an Amerindian tribal population
Spatial autocorrelation (SA) methods were recently extended to detect local spatial autocorrelation (LSA) at individual localities. LSA statistics serve as useful indicators of local genetic population structure. We applied this method to 15 allele frequencies from 43 villages of a South American tribe, the Yanomama. Based on a network of links <or=51 km between neighboring villages, we calculated LSA statistics for Moran, Geary, and Getis-Ord co…
A new protocol for evaluating putative causes for multiple variables in a spatial setting, illustrated by its application to European cancer rates
We introduce a statistical protocol for analyzing spatially varying data, including putative explanatory variables. The procedures comprise preliminary spatial autocorrelation analysis (from an earlier study), path analysis, clustering of the resulting set of path diagrams, ordination of these diagrams, and confirmatory tests against extrinsic information. To illustrate the application of these methods, we present incidence and mortality rates of…
Raymond Pearl's Legacy: The proper measure of man
During much of his academic career, Raymond Pearl advocated the employment of quantitative and statistical methods in biology and applied them in his own voluminous research output, much of it in various aspects of human biology. If he were to return today, he would be pleased to note the fruits of his advocacy—the widespread quantification of biological and anthropological research. He would undoubtedly be impressed with the tremendous progress …
The patterns of historical population movements in Europe and some of their genetic consequences
Population movements of 891 ethnic units in Europe over the past 4,200 years, and the correlations of these movements with modern genetic distances were investigated on a one-degree-square grid of the continent. There is significant spatial pattern in movements from sources, to targets, and overall. Patterns change significantly over time. Patterns of sources and targets differ significantly. Modern movements are more numerous than ancient moveme…
Using distance matrices to choose between competing theories and an application to the origin of modern humans
Dermatoglyphic variation in Europe
We describe the geographic variation patterns of 236 dermatoglyphic variables (118 for each sex) for 74 samples in Europe. Using principal components analysis and rotating to simple structure, we simplified these patterns to the first 20 axes, representing 74.2% of covariation. We then used heterogeneity tests, interpolated surfaces, one-dimensional and directional correlograms, and distances between correlograms to analyze the factor scores of t…
Dermatoglyphic variation in Europe
We describe the geographic variation patterns of 236 dermatoglyphic variables (118 for each sex) for 74 samples in Europe. Using principal components analysis and rotating to simple structure, we simplified these patterns to the first 20 axes, representing 74.2% of covariation. We then used heterogeneity tests, interpolated surfaces, one-dimensional and directional correlograms, and distances between correlograms to analyze the factor scores of t…
Ethnobiological Classification: Principles of Categorization of Plants and Animals in Traditional Society
Indo‐European origins: A computer‐simulation test of five hypotheses
Allele frequency distributions were generated by computer simulation of five models of microevolution in European populations. Genetic distances calculated from these distributions were compared with observed genetic distances among Indo‐European speakers. The simulated models differ in complexity, but all incorporate random genetic drift and short‐range gene flow (isolation by distance). The best correlations between observed and simulated data …
Genetic structure of human populations in the British Isles
Spatial patterns were studied for 36 allele frequencies representing 14 genetic systems (blood antigens, enzymes and serum proteins) in the United Kingdom and Irish Republic. The total number of data points over all systems and localities is 331. Patterns of genetic variation in space are graphically represented by one-dimensional and directional correlograms, and by interpolated allele-frequency surfaces. The data surfaces were examined by the v…
Geographic variation of six dermatoglyphic traits in Eurasia
We describe the geographic variation patterns of six dermatoglyphic traits from 144 samples in Eurasia. The methods of analysis include computation of interpolated surfaces, one‐dimensional and directional correlograms, correlations between all pairs of surfaces, and distances between correlograms. There are at least two, probably three, distinct and significant patterns of variation. 1) A general NW‐SE trend for pattern intensity, the main line …
Genetic relationships of European populations reflect their ethnohistorical affinities
From 420 records of ethnic locations and movements since 2000 B. C., we computed vectors describing the proportions which peoples of the various European language families contributed to the gene pools within 85 land‐based 5 × 5‐degree quadrats in Europe. Using these language family vectors, we computed ethnohistorical affinities as arc distances between all pairs of the 85 quadrats. These affinities are significantly correlated with genetic dist…
A spatial analysis of 100 surnames in England and Wales
Spatial patterns are described and analysed for the 84 most common surnames in England and Wales, as well as 16 others selected for various reasons. At least three-quarters of the surname frequencies show spatial structure and are heterogeneous over the area of study. While they do not exhibit clines extending over the entire area of study, they do divide into four characteristics patterns. Spatial autocorrelation, while significant, is relativel…
Genetic evidence for the spread of agriculture in Europe by demic diffusion
The Continental Population Structure Of Europe
Structure in populations refers to inhomogeneity of various population proper ties. These inhomogeneities may range over demographic, morphological , genetic, cultural , and social variables. Population structure is of inherent interest from a descriptive point of view, but its principal importance is that it leads to inferences about the processes that have engendered the structure and permits us to support or reject various hypotheses about th…
Zones of sharp genetic change in Europe are also linguistic boundaries.
A newly elaborated method, "Wombling," for detecting regions of abrupt change in biological variables was applied to 63 human allele frequencies in Europe. Of the 33 gene-frequency boundaries discovered in this way, 31 are coincident with linguistic boundaries marking contiguous regions of different language families, languages, or dialects. The remaining two boundaries (through Iceland and Greece) separate descendants of different ethnic or geog…
Genetic differences among language families in Europe
We investigated whether 59 allele frequencies and 10 cranial variables differed among speakers of the 12 modern language families in Europe. Although this is a classical analysis of variance design, special techniques had to be developed for the analysis because of spatial autocorrelation of both biological and language data. The method examines pooled sums of squares within language families. These are compared with the same quantities obtained …
Brain Size, Cranial Morphology, Climate, and Time Machines [and Comments and Reply]
A bioclimatic model is evaluated as an explanation of variation in cranial capacity among 122 ethnic groups. Distribution of absolute and relative endocranial volume is mapped. Significant correlations occur with all nine climatic variables examined. Major foci of adaptation occur with solar radiation, vapor pressure, and winter temperature. Global mean trait increase is 2.5 cm per degree of equatorial distance. The interactive geometry between c…
Indo‐European origins: A computer‐simulation test of five hypotheses
Allele frequency distributions were generated by computer simulation of five models of microevolution in European populations. Genetic distances calculated from these distributions were compared with observed genetic distances among Indo‐European speakers. The simulated models differ in complexity, but all incorporate random genetic drift and short‐range gene flow (isolation by distance). The best correlations between observed and simulated data …
Spatial patterns of human gene frequencies in Europe
The aims of this study of spatial patterns of human gene frequencies in Europe are twofold. One is to present new methodology developed for the analysis of such data. The other is to report on the diversity of spatial patterns observed in Europe and their interpretation as evidence of population processes. Spatial variation in 59 allele and haplotype frequencies (26 genetic systems) for polymorphisms in blood antigens, enzymes, and proteins is an…
Cranial variation in European populations: A spatial autocorrelation study at three time periods
This study reports on spatial variation of 10 cranial variables in European populations at 3 time periods. Means for these variables, based on 137, 108, and 183 samples from the Early Medieval, Late Medieval, and Recent periods, were subjected to one‐dimensional and directional spatial autocorrelation analyses. Significant spatial structure was found for most variables. It becomes more pronounced as time progresses. The spatial patterns are not s…
Genetic changes across language boundaries in Europe
By means of three different methods we investigated whether 59 allele frequencies and ten cranial variables show increased change at 29 language‐family boundaries in Europe. The quadrat‐variance method compares variances of map quadrats crossed by language‐family boundaries to variances of quadrats that are not crossed. The rate‐of‐change method examines the directional derivative of surfaces of the variables perpendicular to a language‐family bo…
Worldwide Analysis of Genetic and Linguistic Relationships of Human Populations
In this study we relate language differences on a global scale with genetic distances for the same populations. The analysis is carried out on more populations (130) but fewer genetic systems (11) than earlier studies. We constructed an overall genetic distance matrix that allowed for missing values. A separate genetic distance matrix was also computed for each genetic system, and matching matrices of linguistic and geographic distances were asso…
A Problem with Synthetic Maps
Synthetic maps of human gene frequencies, which are maps of principal component scores based on correlation of interpolated surfaces, have been popularized widely by L. Cavalli-Sforza, P. Menozzi, and A. Piazza. Such maps are used to make ethnohistorical inferences or to support various demographic or historical hypotheses. We show from first principles and by analyses of real and simulated data that synthetic maps are subject to large errors and…
Genetic differences among language families in Europe
We investigated whether 59 allele frequencies and 10 cranial variables differed among speakers of the 12 modern language families in Europe. Although this is a classical analysis of variance design, special techniques had to be developed for the analysis because of spatial autocorrelation of both biological and language data. The method examines pooled sums of squares within language families. These are compared with the same quantities obtained …
A classification of European skulls from three time periods
We analyze the taxonomic structure of European populations at three time periods, the Early Middle Ages, the Late Middle Ages and the Recent Period. The data consist of sample means for 10 cranial variables based on 137, 108, and 183 samples for the three periods. Clustering by standard numerical taxonomic procedures reveals that the data are represented only poorly as hierarchic classifications. The clusters form significant and moderately stron…
Genetic relationships of European populations reflect their ethnohistorical affinities
From 420 records of ethnic locations and movements since 2000 B. C., we computed vectors describing the proportions which peoples of the various European language families contributed to the gene pools within 85 land‐based 5 × 5‐degree quadrats in Europe. Using these language family vectors, we computed ethnohistorical affinities as arc distances between all pairs of the 85 quadrats. These affinities are significantly correlated with genetic dist…
Using distance matrices to choose between competing theories and an application to the origin of modern humans
Spatial autocorrelation of ABO serotypes in mediaeval cemeteries as an indicator of ethnic and familial structure
The Continental Population Structure Of Europe
Structure in populations refers to inhomogeneity of various population proper ties. These inhomogeneities may range over demographic, morphological , genetic, cultural , and social variables. Population structure is of inherent interest from a descriptive point of view, but its principal importance is that it leads to inferences about the processes that have engendered the structure and permits us to support or reject various hypotheses about th…
Geographic variation of six dermatoglyphic traits in Eurasia
We describe the geographic variation patterns of six dermatoglyphic traits from 144 samples in Eurasia. The methods of analysis include computation of interpolated surfaces, one‐dimensional and directional correlograms, correlations between all pairs of surfaces, and distances between correlograms. There are at least two, probably three, distinct and significant patterns of variation. 1) A general NW‐SE trend for pattern intensity, the main line …
A Classification of European Populations Based on Gene Frequencies and Cranial Measurements: A Map-Quadrat Approach
Classifications of European populations were produced based on 59 gene frequencies and 10 cranial measurements, but recorded for different population samples. A map-quadrat approach circumvented the problem of noncorrespondence of sampling localities. Clustering by standard numerical taxonomic procedures shows that these data are represented poorly as hierarchic classifications, but are associated with geographic regions. The agreement between cl…
Significance Tests for Coefficients of Variation and Variability Profiles
Reification In Factor Analysis: A Plasmode Based On Human Physiology-Of-Exercise Variables
This study investigates the validity of multiple factor analysis in a known model in biology, and -- by extension -- in other fields. A plasmode was constructed by subjecting three test subjects to 100 different combinations of temperature, humidity and exercise levels, and measuring 45 physiological response variables, some of these three times during the experiment. Factor analysis of the correlation matrix among response variables with the put…
Biometry: The Principles and Practice of Statistics in Biological Research
Brain Size, Cranial Morphology, Climate, and Time Machines [and Comments and Reply]
A bioclimatic model is evaluated as an explanation of variation in cranial capacity among 122 ethnic groups. Distribution of absolute and relative endocranial volume is mapped. Significant correlations occur with all nine climatic variables examined. Major foci of adaptation occur with solar radiation, vapor pressure, and winter temperature. Global mean trait increase is 2.5 cm per degree of equatorial distance. The interactive geometry between c…
Multiple Regression and Correlation Extensions of the Mantel Test of Matrix Correspondence
Peter E. Smouse, Jeffrey C. Long, Robert R. Sokal; Multiple Regression and Correlation Extensions of the Mantel Test of Matrix Correspondence, Systematic Biolog
Spatial autocorrelation of ABO serotypes in mediaeval cemeteries as an indicator of ethnic and familial structure
Cranial variation in European populations: A spatial autocorrelation study at three time periods
This study reports on spatial variation of 10 cranial variables in European populations at 3 time periods. Means for these variables, based on 137, 108, and 183 samples from the Early Medieval, Late Medieval, and Recent periods, were subjected to one‐dimensional and directional spatial autocorrelation analyses. Significant spatial structure was found for most variables. It becomes more pronounced as time progresses. The spatial patterns are not s…
A classification of European skulls from three time periods
We analyze the taxonomic structure of European populations at three time periods, the Early Middle Ages, the Late Middle Ages and the Recent Period. The data consist of sample means for 10 cranial variables based on 137, 108, and 183 samples for the three periods. Clustering by standard numerical taxonomic procedures reveals that the data are represented only poorly as hierarchic classifications. The clusters form significant and moderately stron…
Genetic changes across language boundaries in Europe
By means of three different methods we investigated whether 59 allele frequencies and ten cranial variables show increased change at 29 language‐family boundaries in Europe. The quadrat‐variance method compares variances of map quadrats crossed by language‐family boundaries to variances of quadrats that are not crossed. The rate‐of‐change method examines the directional derivative of surfaces of the variables perpendicular to a language‐family bo…
Genetic differences among language families in Europe
We investigated whether 59 allele frequencies and 10 cranial variables differed among speakers of the 12 modern language families in Europe. Although this is a classical analysis of variance design, special techniques had to be developed for the analysis because of spatial autocorrelation of both biological and language data. The method examines pooled sums of squares within language families. These are compared with the same quantities obtained …
Spatial patterns of human gene frequencies in Europe
The aims of this study of spatial patterns of human gene frequencies in Europe are twofold. One is to present new methodology developed for the analysis of such data. The other is to report on the diversity of spatial patterns observed in Europe and their interpretation as evidence of population processes. Spatial variation in 59 allele and haplotype frequencies (26 genetic systems) for polymorphisms in blood antigens, enzymes, and proteins is an…
Zones of sharp genetic change in Europe are also linguistic boundaries.
A newly elaborated method, "Wombling," for detecting regions of abrupt change in biological variables was applied to 63 human allele frequencies in Europe. Of the 33 gene-frequency boundaries discovered in this way, 31 are coincident with linguistic boundaries marking contiguous regions of different language families, languages, or dialects. The remaining two boundaries (through Iceland and Greece) separate descendants of different ethnic or geog…
Genetic evidence for the spread of agriculture in Europe by demic diffusion
The Continental Population Structure Of Europe
Structure in populations refers to inhomogeneity of various population proper ties. These inhomogeneities may range over demographic, morphological , genetic, cultural , and social variables. Population structure is of inherent interest from a descriptive point of view, but its principal importance is that it leads to inferences about the processes that have engendered the structure and permits us to support or reject various hypotheses about th…
A spatial analysis of 100 surnames in England and Wales
Spatial patterns are described and analysed for the 84 most common surnames in England and Wales, as well as 16 others selected for various reasons. At least three-quarters of the surname frequencies show spatial structure and are heterogeneous over the area of study. While they do not exhibit clines extending over the entire area of study, they do divide into four characteristics patterns. Spatial autocorrelation, while significant, is relativel…
Genetic structure of human populations in the British Isles
Spatial patterns were studied for 36 allele frequencies representing 14 genetic systems (blood antigens, enzymes and serum proteins) in the United Kingdom and Irish Republic. The total number of data points over all systems and localities is 331. Patterns of genetic variation in space are graphically represented by one-dimensional and directional correlograms, and by interpolated allele-frequency surfaces. The data surfaces were examined by the v…
Geographic variation of six dermatoglyphic traits in Eurasia
We describe the geographic variation patterns of six dermatoglyphic traits from 144 samples in Eurasia. The methods of analysis include computation of interpolated surfaces, one‐dimensional and directional correlograms, correlations between all pairs of surfaces, and distances between correlograms. There are at least two, probably three, distinct and significant patterns of variation. 1) A general NW‐SE trend for pattern intensity, the main line …
Genetic relationships of European populations reflect their ethnohistorical affinities
From 420 records of ethnic locations and movements since 2000 B. C., we computed vectors describing the proportions which peoples of the various European language families contributed to the gene pools within 85 land‐based 5 × 5‐degree quadrats in Europe. Using these language family vectors, we computed ethnohistorical affinities as arc distances between all pairs of the 85 quadrats. These affinities are significantly correlated with genetic dist…
Ethnobiological Classification: Principles of Categorization of Plants and Animals in Traditional Society
Indo‐European origins: A computer‐simulation test of five hypotheses
Allele frequency distributions were generated by computer simulation of five models of microevolution in European populations. Genetic distances calculated from these distributions were compared with observed genetic distances among Indo‐European speakers. The simulated models differ in complexity, but all incorporate random genetic drift and short‐range gene flow (isolation by distance). The best correlations between observed and simulated data …
Dermatoglyphic variation in Europe
We describe the geographic variation patterns of 236 dermatoglyphic variables (118 for each sex) for 74 samples in Europe. Using principal components analysis and rotating to simple structure, we simplified these patterns to the first 20 axes, representing 74.2% of covariation. We then used heterogeneity tests, interpolated surfaces, one-dimensional and directional correlograms, and distances between correlograms to analyze the factor scores of t…
Dermatoglyphic variation in Europe
We describe the geographic variation patterns of 236 dermatoglyphic variables (118 for each sex) for 74 samples in Europe. Using principal components analysis and rotating to simple structure, we simplified these patterns to the first 20 axes, representing 74.2% of covariation. We then used heterogeneity tests, interpolated surfaces, one-dimensional and directional correlograms, and distances between correlograms to analyze the factor scores of t…
The patterns of historical population movements in Europe and some of their genetic consequences
Population movements of 891 ethnic units in Europe over the past 4,200 years, and the correlations of these movements with modern genetic distances were investigated on a one-degree-square grid of the continent. There is significant spatial pattern in movements from sources, to targets, and overall. Patterns change significantly over time. Patterns of sources and targets differ significantly. Modern movements are more numerous than ancient moveme…
Using distance matrices to choose between competing theories and an application to the origin of modern humans
A new protocol for evaluating putative causes for multiple variables in a spatial setting, illustrated by its application to European cancer rates
We introduce a statistical protocol for analyzing spatially varying data, including putative explanatory variables. The procedures comprise preliminary spatial autocorrelation analysis (from an earlier study), path analysis, clustering of the resulting set of path diagrams, ordination of these diagrams, and confirmatory tests against extrinsic information. To illustrate the application of these methods, we present incidence and mortality rates of…
Geography (25 works) · Biology (20 works) · Demography (20 works) · Population (19 works) · Forensic and Genetic Research (14 works) · Genetic diversity and population structure (14 works) · Sociology (14 works) · Archaeology (11 works) · Mathematics (11 works) · Computer Science (10 works)