Amy E Lerman
Biographic Data
| ID | 112759 |
|---|---|
| NAME | Amy E Lerman |
| GIVEN NAMES | Amy E |
| FAMILY NAME | Lerman |
| SIGNATURE | LERMAN A E |
| AFFILIATIONS | University of California, Berkeley |
| ORCID | 0000-0002-5577-5909 |
| VERIFIED | Yes |
| TOTAL WORKS | 29 |
| TOTAL CITATIONS | 631 |
| AUTHOR COUNT | 29 |
| EDITOR COUNT | 0 |
| FIRST PUBLICATION YEAR | 2007 |
| LATEST PUBLICATION YEAR | 2026 |
| H-INDEX | 8 |
Toward a Framework & Evidence for Innovation in Co-Governance
A growing interest in collaborative governance has led to exciting new projects at both the state and local levels, aiming to expand and improve civic engagement by bringing communities more fully into public-sector decision-making. These innovations in co-governance will be critical to bolstering democratic institutions and practices, with the potential to reduce harmful polarization and rebuild trust in democracy. But we will need intentional d…
The Classroom and the Yard: The Contrasting Context of Prison Higher Education and Its Role in Racial Bias Mitigation
Prison has long been recognized as a racialized institution in America, where race determines myriad aspects of life—from where individuals sleep to those with whom they live, eat, and socialize during incarceration. However, there is little evidence on how to effectively remediate prisons’ deep racial divisions—a question that is imperative given that interracial animus in prisons can be both a result and a determinant of racial conflict and vio…
Equivalency Framing of Problems and Policy Solutions
Reimagining Public Safety: Defining “Community” in Participatory Research
In the context of a national movement to defund police departments, many American cities are starting to reimagine public safety, as activists demand new practices that maintain safety while minimizing harm, as well as ensuring accountability when harms occur. Drawing on Everyday Peace Indicators methodologies, we argue that “community-centered” measurement, combined with researcher-practitioner partnerships, can help move both researchers and po…
Prisons and Mental Health: Violence, Organizational Support, and the Effects of Correctional Work
Correctional workers have a high likelihood of exposure to violence in the workplace. However, empirical literature has largely neglected the mental health consequences of prison work, as well as the institutional factors that might mitigate or exacerbate these effects. To fill this gap, we employ original survey data on thousands of correctional officers to explore the effects of exposure to violence on the job. We find strong associations betwe…
Pleading for Justice: Bullpen Therapy, Pre-Trial Detention, and Plea Bargains in American Courts
What role do extra-legal factors play in whether defendants plead guilty to a criminal offense? In this study, we provide qualitative evidence that pretrial detention is a contributing factor in adjudication outcomes. Many of our subjects reported that the prospect of being held in unsanitary and unsafe jails was sufficient to induce their acceptance of a plea, even when they maintained their innocence. Others worried that being held pre-trial wo…
Beyond Pell restoration: Addressing persistent funding challenges in prison higher education toward racial and economic justice
Transformational learning and identity shift: Evidence from a campus behind bars
Identity-driven theories of desistance provide a useful model for understanding change in a carceral context. However, these theories often are not grounded in specific programmes or practices that might catalyze identity shift, and tend to focus narrowly on recidivism as the sole outcome of interest. In this study, we examine the role of prison higher education in identity-driven change through the process of transformative learning. Using admin…
Racial equity in eligibility for a clean slate under automatic criminal record relief laws
States have begun to pass legislation to provide automatic relief for eligible criminal records, potentially reducing the lifelong collateral consequences of criminal justice involvement. Yet numerous historical examples suggest that racially neutral policies can have profoundly disparate effects across racial groups. In the case of criminal record relief, racial equity in eligibility for a clean slate has not yet been examined. We find that in C…
The downside of downsizing: Persistence of racial disparities following state prison reform
Nationwide, prison populations have declined nearly 5% from their peak, and 16 states have seen double-digit declines. It is unclear, though, how decarceration has affected racial disparities. Using national data, we find substantial variation in state prison populations from 2005–2018, with increases in some states and declines in others. However, although declines in the overall state prison population were associated with declines for all grou…
Where Policies and Politics Diverge
How citizens hold government accountable in democratic systems is one of the fundamental questions of political science and has long been of interest to scholars of public opinion. Accountability for the performance of government requires individuals to make accurate evaluations of the effects of policy decisions, and to trace responsibility for policy decisions to the appropriate politician or political party. In this paper, we study the questio…
United in States of Dissatisfaction: Confirmation Bias Across the Partisan Divide
Partisan polarization is a central feature of American political life, and a robust literature has shown that citizens engage in partisan motivated reasoning when processing political information. At the same time, however, recent events have highlighted a rising tide of antigovernment sentiment among Democrats and Republicans alike. Using an original set of survey experiments, we find that citizens engage in confirmation bias when they encounter…
Feedback Effects and the Criminal Justice Bureaucracy: Officer Attitudes and the Future of Correctional Reform
Although political scientists have documented the effects of incarceration on those serving time in prison and jail, there has been much less discussion about feedback effects on the attitudes of those who work in correctional institutions. This is a considerable oversight, given the enormous growth of the correctional workforce and its importance in the implementation of crime policy. In this article, we present original survey data from a large…
Unusually Cruel: Prisons, Punishment, and the Real American Exceptionalism
Books and articles seeking to explore and explain mass incarceration in America are by now abundant, to say the least. Scholars in criminology, economics, sociology, and political science have thoroughly documented the rise of the U.S. prison system, its causes, and its consequences, and public intellectuals and pundits have opined at length on a prison system that grew enormously over the second half of the twentieth century. Despite the steady …
Personal Experience and Public Opinion: A Theory and Test of Conditional Policy Feedback
Using a regression discontinuity design, we show that personal experience with public health insurance programs exerts a causal influence on attitudes toward both Medicare and the Affordable Care Act. However, we argue that the conditional dynamics of these policy feedback effects differ from standard models of opinion formation and change. Specifically, we find that personal experience can shape preferences among those whose partisanship might o…
Policy Uptake as Political Behavior: Evidence from the Affordable Care Act
Partisanship is a primary predictor of attitudes toward public policy. However, we do not yet know whether party similarly plays a role in shaping public policy behavior, such as whether to apply for government benefits or take advantage of public services. While existing research has identified numerous factors that increase policy uptake, the role of politics has been almost entirely overlooked. In this paper, we examine the case of the Afforda…
Does the Front Line Reflect the Party Line? The Politicization of Punishment and Prison Officers’ Perspectives Towards Incarceration
Imprisonment policy has become increasingly politicized since the mid-1960s, but we do not yet know the consequence of this shift for the professional orientations of prison workers. In this article, we use original surveys of prison officers in California and Minnesota to assess whether and how partisan identification and the politicization of crime policy predict officers’ conceptualizations of the purpose and function of prisons. Results show …
Stereotyping or Projection? How White and Black Voters Estimate Black Candidates' Ideology
In studying the electoral fortunes of Black candidates, scholars have almost exclusively focused on White voters' attitudes. In this article, we employ a set of randomized experiments and nationally representative survey data to examine how both Black and White voters evaluate the ideology of racially diverse candidates. In line with previous research, we find evidence that White voters stereotype Black candidates as being more liberal than White…
Response to Marie Gottschalk’s and Naomi Murakawa’s reviews of Arresting Citizenship: The Democratic Consequences of American Crime Control
An abstract is not available for this content so a preview has been provided. Please use the Get access link above for information on how to access this content
Political Ideology, Skin Tone, and the Psychology of Candidate Evaluations
Journal Article Political Ideology, Skin Tone, and the Psychology of Candidate Evaluations Get access Amy E. Lerman, Amy E. Lerman * A my E. L erman is an associate professor in the Goldman School of Public Policy at the University of California–Berkeley, Berkeley, CA, USA. Katherine T. McCabe is a doctoral candidate in the Department of Politics at Princeton University, Princeton, NJ, USA. Meredith L. Sadin is a fellow at the Robert Wood Johnson…
Race and Crime in American Politics
Crime control and race relations have played central roles in the unfolding of partisan politics in the United States over the last half-century. A variety of major features of modern politics, from the fall of liberalism and the conservative ascendancy to modern public opinion toward racial policies, cannot be understood without attending to the intersection of race and criminal justice.
The Carceral State and American Political Development
Since mid-century, the capacity of the United States to punish and surveil its citizenry has undergone tremendous expansion. Yet this phenomenal transformation and its repercussions for citizens has engendered surprisingly little discussion among scholars of American political development (APD). Nor have criminal justice scholars been sufficiently attentive to the intersection between democratic development and the carceral state. In this essay, …
Arresting Citizenship: The Democratic Consequences of American Crime Control
Staying out of Sight? Concentrated Policing and Local Political Action
In some urban neighborhoods, encounters with police have become one of the primary points of contact between disadvantaged citizens and their government. Yet extant scholarship has only just begun to explore how criminal justice interventions help to shape the political lives of the urban poor. In this article, we ask: What are the consequences of the increased use of stop-and-frisks (Terry stops) in disadvantaged neighborhoods for communities' e…
Reading Wacquant as both 'lumper' and 'splitter
In this short response to Loïc Wacquant's 'Marginality, Ethnicity and Penality in the Neo-liberal City', I outline two intellectual conversations that emerge from the author's work. The first develops out of the connections that the author draws between systems of criminal justice and welfare. The second grows out of the disassociation he urges us to see between the logics and trajectories of crime, on the one hand, and criminal justice on the ot…
Political Consequences of the Carceral State
Contact with the criminal justice system is greater today than at any time in our history. In this article, we argue that interactions with criminal justice are an important source of political socialization, in which the lessons that are imprinted are antagonistic to democratic participation and inspire negative orientations toward government. To test this argument, we conduct the first systematic empirical exploration of how criminal justice in…
Staying out of Sight? Concentrated Policing and Local Political Action
In some urban neighborhoods, encounters with police have become one of the primary points of contact between disadvantaged citizens and their government. Yet extant scholarship has only just begun to explore how criminal justice interventions help to shape the political lives of the urban poor. In this article, we ask: What are the consequences of the increased use of stop-and-frisks (Terry stops) in disadvantaged neighborhoods for communities' e…
Personal Experience and Public Opinion: A Theory and Test of Conditional Policy Feedback
Using a regression discontinuity design, we show that personal experience with public health insurance programs exerts a causal influence on attitudes toward both Medicare and the Affordable Care Act. However, we argue that the conditional dynamics of these policy feedback effects differ from standard models of opinion formation and change. Specifically, we find that personal experience can shape preferences among those whose partisanship might o…
Testing Huntington: Is Hispanic Immigration a Threat to American Identity
Samuel Huntington argues that the sheer number, concentration, linguistic homogeneity, and other characteristic of Hispanic immigrants will erode the dominance of English as a nationally unifying language, weaken the country's dominant cultural values, and promote ethnic allegiances over a primary identification as an American. Testing these hypotheses with data from the U.S. Census and national and Los Angeles opinion surveys, we show that Hispa…
Stereotyping or Projection? How White and Black Voters Estimate Black Candidates' Ideology
In studying the electoral fortunes of Black candidates, scholars have almost exclusively focused on White voters' attitudes. In this article, we employ a set of randomized experiments and nationally representative survey data to examine how both Black and White voters evaluate the ideology of racially diverse candidates. In line with previous research, we find evidence that White voters stereotype Black candidates as being more liberal than White…
Policy Uptake as Political Behavior: Evidence from the Affordable Care Act
Partisanship is a primary predictor of attitudes toward public policy. However, we do not yet know whether party similarly plays a role in shaping public policy behavior, such as whether to apply for government benefits or take advantage of public services. While existing research has identified numerous factors that increase policy uptake, the role of politics has been almost entirely overlooked. In this paper, we examine the case of the Afforda…
Political Ideology, Skin Tone, and the Psychology of Candidate Evaluations
Journal Article Political Ideology, Skin Tone, and the Psychology of Candidate Evaluations Get access Amy E. Lerman, Amy E. Lerman * A my E. L erman is an associate professor in the Goldman School of Public Policy at the University of California–Berkeley, Berkeley, CA, USA. Katherine T. McCabe is a doctoral candidate in the Department of Politics at Princeton University, Princeton, NJ, USA. Meredith L. Sadin is a fellow at the Robert Wood Johnson…
The state of the job: An embedded work role perspective on prison officer attitudes
Although the United States has grown increasingly punitive in the last three decades, there is considerable variation across states. On a variety of indicators, California is much more punitive than Minnesota. Using data from two original, large-N surveys, we analyze whether these differences in the orientations of state correctional systems are reflected in the attitudes of workers who are tasked with the day-to-day oversight of state prisons. W…
Does the Front Line Reflect the Party Line? The Politicization of Punishment and Prison Officers’ Perspectives Towards Incarceration
Imprisonment policy has become increasingly politicized since the mid-1960s, but we do not yet know the consequence of this shift for the professional orientations of prison workers. In this article, we use original surveys of prison officers in California and Minnesota to assess whether and how partisan identification and the politicization of crime policy predict officers’ conceptualizations of the purpose and function of prisons. Results show …
Racial equity in eligibility for a clean slate under automatic criminal record relief laws
States have begun to pass legislation to provide automatic relief for eligible criminal records, potentially reducing the lifelong collateral consequences of criminal justice involvement. Yet numerous historical examples suggest that racially neutral policies can have profoundly disparate effects across racial groups. In the case of criminal record relief, racial equity in eligibility for a clean slate has not yet been examined. We find that in C…
Unusually Cruel: Prisons, Punishment, and the Real American Exceptionalism
Books and articles seeking to explore and explain mass incarceration in America are by now abundant, to say the least. Scholars in criminology, economics, sociology, and political science have thoroughly documented the rise of the U.S. prison system, its causes, and its consequences, and public intellectuals and pundits have opined at length on a prison system that grew enormously over the second half of the twentieth century. Despite the steady …
United in States of Dissatisfaction: Confirmation Bias Across the Partisan Divide
Partisan polarization is a central feature of American political life, and a robust literature has shown that citizens engage in partisan motivated reasoning when processing political information. At the same time, however, recent events have highlighted a rising tide of antigovernment sentiment among Democrats and Republicans alike. Using an original set of survey experiments, we find that citizens engage in confirmation bias when they encounter…
Feedback Effects and the Criminal Justice Bureaucracy: Officer Attitudes and the Future of Correctional Reform
Although political scientists have documented the effects of incarceration on those serving time in prison and jail, there has been much less discussion about feedback effects on the attitudes of those who work in correctional institutions. This is a considerable oversight, given the enormous growth of the correctional workforce and its importance in the implementation of crime policy. In this article, we present original survey data from a large…
Equivalency Framing of Problems and Policy Solutions
Reimagining Public Safety: Defining “Community” in Participatory Research
In the context of a national movement to defund police departments, many American cities are starting to reimagine public safety, as activists demand new practices that maintain safety while minimizing harm, as well as ensuring accountability when harms occur. Drawing on Everyday Peace Indicators methodologies, we argue that “community-centered” measurement, combined with researcher-practitioner partnerships, can help move both researchers and po…
Transformational learning and identity shift: Evidence from a campus behind bars
Identity-driven theories of desistance provide a useful model for understanding change in a carceral context. However, these theories often are not grounded in specific programmes or practices that might catalyze identity shift, and tend to focus narrowly on recidivism as the sole outcome of interest. In this study, we examine the role of prison higher education in identity-driven change through the process of transformative learning. Using admin…
The downside of downsizing: Persistence of racial disparities following state prison reform
Nationwide, prison populations have declined nearly 5% from their peak, and 16 states have seen double-digit declines. It is unclear, though, how decarceration has affected racial disparities. Using national data, we find substantial variation in state prison populations from 2005–2018, with increases in some states and declines in others. However, although declines in the overall state prison population were associated with declines for all grou…
Where Policies and Politics Diverge
How citizens hold government accountable in democratic systems is one of the fundamental questions of political science and has long been of interest to scholars of public opinion. Accountability for the performance of government requires individuals to make accurate evaluations of the effects of policy decisions, and to trace responsibility for policy decisions to the appropriate politician or political party. In this paper, we study the questio…
Testing Huntington: Is Hispanic Immigration a Threat to American Identity
Samuel Huntington argues that the sheer number, concentration, linguistic homogeneity, and other characteristic of Hispanic immigrants will erode the dominance of English as a nationally unifying language, weaken the country's dominant cultural values, and promote ethnic allegiances over a primary identification as an American. Testing these hypotheses with data from the U.S. Census and national and Los Angeles opinion surveys, we show that Hispa…
Political Consequences of the Carceral State
Contact with the criminal justice system is greater today than at any time in our history. In this article, we argue that interactions with criminal justice are an important source of political socialization, in which the lessons that are imprinted are antagonistic to democratic participation and inspire negative orientations toward government. To test this argument, we conduct the first systematic empirical exploration of how criminal justice in…
The state of the job: An embedded work role perspective on prison officer attitudes
Although the United States has grown increasingly punitive in the last three decades, there is considerable variation across states. On a variety of indicators, California is much more punitive than Minnesota. Using data from two original, large-N surveys, we analyze whether these differences in the orientations of state correctional systems are reflected in the attitudes of workers who are tasked with the day-to-day oversight of state prisons. W…
The Modern Prison Paradox: Politics, Punishment, and Social Community
In The Modern Prison Paradox, Amy E. Lerman examines the shift from rehabilitation to punitivism that has taken place in the politics and practice of American corrections. She argues that this punitive turn has had profoundly negative consequences for both crime control and American community life. Professor Lerman's research shows that spending time in America's increasingly violent and castigatory prisons strengthens inmates' criminal networks …
Race and Crime in American Politics
Crime control and race relations have played central roles in the unfolding of partisan politics in the United States over the last half-century. A variety of major features of modern politics, from the fall of liberalism and the conservative ascendancy to modern public opinion toward racial policies, cannot be understood without attending to the intersection of race and criminal justice.
The Carceral State and American Political Development
Since mid-century, the capacity of the United States to punish and surveil its citizenry has undergone tremendous expansion. Yet this phenomenal transformation and its repercussions for citizens has engendered surprisingly little discussion among scholars of American political development (APD). Nor have criminal justice scholars been sufficiently attentive to the intersection between democratic development and the carceral state. In this essay, …
Arresting Citizenship: The Democratic Consequences of American Crime Control
Staying out of Sight? Concentrated Policing and Local Political Action
In some urban neighborhoods, encounters with police have become one of the primary points of contact between disadvantaged citizens and their government. Yet extant scholarship has only just begun to explore how criminal justice interventions help to shape the political lives of the urban poor. In this article, we ask: What are the consequences of the increased use of stop-and-frisks (Terry stops) in disadvantaged neighborhoods for communities' e…
Reading Wacquant as both 'lumper' and 'splitter
In this short response to Loïc Wacquant's 'Marginality, Ethnicity and Penality in the Neo-liberal City', I outline two intellectual conversations that emerge from the author's work. The first develops out of the connections that the author draws between systems of criminal justice and welfare. The second grows out of the disassociation he urges us to see between the logics and trajectories of crime, on the one hand, and criminal justice on the ot…
Response to Marie Gottschalk’s and Naomi Murakawa’s reviews of Arresting Citizenship: The Democratic Consequences of American Crime Control
An abstract is not available for this content so a preview has been provided. Please use the Get access link above for information on how to access this content
Political Ideology, Skin Tone, and the Psychology of Candidate Evaluations
Journal Article Political Ideology, Skin Tone, and the Psychology of Candidate Evaluations Get access Amy E. Lerman, Amy E. Lerman * A my E. L erman is an associate professor in the Goldman School of Public Policy at the University of California–Berkeley, Berkeley, CA, USA. Katherine T. McCabe is a doctoral candidate in the Department of Politics at Princeton University, Princeton, NJ, USA. Meredith L. Sadin is a fellow at the Robert Wood Johnson…
Does the Front Line Reflect the Party Line? The Politicization of Punishment and Prison Officers’ Perspectives Towards Incarceration
Imprisonment policy has become increasingly politicized since the mid-1960s, but we do not yet know the consequence of this shift for the professional orientations of prison workers. In this article, we use original surveys of prison officers in California and Minnesota to assess whether and how partisan identification and the politicization of crime policy predict officers’ conceptualizations of the purpose and function of prisons. Results show …
Stereotyping or Projection? How White and Black Voters Estimate Black Candidates' Ideology
In studying the electoral fortunes of Black candidates, scholars have almost exclusively focused on White voters' attitudes. In this article, we employ a set of randomized experiments and nationally representative survey data to examine how both Black and White voters evaluate the ideology of racially diverse candidates. In line with previous research, we find evidence that White voters stereotype Black candidates as being more liberal than White…
Personal Experience and Public Opinion: A Theory and Test of Conditional Policy Feedback
Using a regression discontinuity design, we show that personal experience with public health insurance programs exerts a causal influence on attitudes toward both Medicare and the Affordable Care Act. However, we argue that the conditional dynamics of these policy feedback effects differ from standard models of opinion formation and change. Specifically, we find that personal experience can shape preferences among those whose partisanship might o…
Policy Uptake as Political Behavior: Evidence from the Affordable Care Act
Partisanship is a primary predictor of attitudes toward public policy. However, we do not yet know whether party similarly plays a role in shaping public policy behavior, such as whether to apply for government benefits or take advantage of public services. While existing research has identified numerous factors that increase policy uptake, the role of politics has been almost entirely overlooked. In this paper, we examine the case of the Afforda…
Unusually Cruel: Prisons, Punishment, and the Real American Exceptionalism
Books and articles seeking to explore and explain mass incarceration in America are by now abundant, to say the least. Scholars in criminology, economics, sociology, and political science have thoroughly documented the rise of the U.S. prison system, its causes, and its consequences, and public intellectuals and pundits have opined at length on a prison system that grew enormously over the second half of the twentieth century. Despite the steady …
Feedback Effects and the Criminal Justice Bureaucracy: Officer Attitudes and the Future of Correctional Reform
Although political scientists have documented the effects of incarceration on those serving time in prison and jail, there has been much less discussion about feedback effects on the attitudes of those who work in correctional institutions. This is a considerable oversight, given the enormous growth of the correctional workforce and its importance in the implementation of crime policy. In this article, we present original survey data from a large…
United in States of Dissatisfaction: Confirmation Bias Across the Partisan Divide
Partisan polarization is a central feature of American political life, and a robust literature has shown that citizens engage in partisan motivated reasoning when processing political information. At the same time, however, recent events have highlighted a rising tide of antigovernment sentiment among Democrats and Republicans alike. Using an original set of survey experiments, we find that citizens engage in confirmation bias when they encounter…
The downside of downsizing: Persistence of racial disparities following state prison reform
Nationwide, prison populations have declined nearly 5% from their peak, and 16 states have seen double-digit declines. It is unclear, though, how decarceration has affected racial disparities. Using national data, we find substantial variation in state prison populations from 2005–2018, with increases in some states and declines in others. However, although declines in the overall state prison population were associated with declines for all grou…
Where Policies and Politics Diverge
How citizens hold government accountable in democratic systems is one of the fundamental questions of political science and has long been of interest to scholars of public opinion. Accountability for the performance of government requires individuals to make accurate evaluations of the effects of policy decisions, and to trace responsibility for policy decisions to the appropriate politician or political party. In this paper, we study the questio…
Prisons and Mental Health: Violence, Organizational Support, and the Effects of Correctional Work
Correctional workers have a high likelihood of exposure to violence in the workplace. However, empirical literature has largely neglected the mental health consequences of prison work, as well as the institutional factors that might mitigate or exacerbate these effects. To fill this gap, we employ original survey data on thousands of correctional officers to explore the effects of exposure to violence on the job. We find strong associations betwe…
Pleading for Justice: Bullpen Therapy, Pre-Trial Detention, and Plea Bargains in American Courts
What role do extra-legal factors play in whether defendants plead guilty to a criminal offense? In this study, we provide qualitative evidence that pretrial detention is a contributing factor in adjudication outcomes. Many of our subjects reported that the prospect of being held in unsanitary and unsafe jails was sufficient to induce their acceptance of a plea, even when they maintained their innocence. Others worried that being held pre-trial wo…
Beyond Pell restoration: Addressing persistent funding challenges in prison higher education toward racial and economic justice
Transformational learning and identity shift: Evidence from a campus behind bars
Identity-driven theories of desistance provide a useful model for understanding change in a carceral context. However, these theories often are not grounded in specific programmes or practices that might catalyze identity shift, and tend to focus narrowly on recidivism as the sole outcome of interest. In this study, we examine the role of prison higher education in identity-driven change through the process of transformative learning. Using admin…
Racial equity in eligibility for a clean slate under automatic criminal record relief laws
States have begun to pass legislation to provide automatic relief for eligible criminal records, potentially reducing the lifelong collateral consequences of criminal justice involvement. Yet numerous historical examples suggest that racially neutral policies can have profoundly disparate effects across racial groups. In the case of criminal record relief, racial equity in eligibility for a clean slate has not yet been examined. We find that in C…
Political science (25 works) · Law (22 works) · Criminology (20 works) · Sociology (20 works) · Criminal Justice and Corrections Analysis (16 works) · Law (16 works) · Politics (16 works) · Psychology (14 works) · Criminal justice (12 works) · Prison (10 works)