Anthony J Conger
Biographic Data
| ID | 118636 |
|---|---|
| NAME | Anthony J Conger |
| GIVEN NAMES | Anthony J |
| FAMILY NAME | Conger |
| SIGNATURE | CONGER A J |
| AFFILIATIONS | Purdue University |
| VERIFIED | No |
| TOTAL WORKS | 22 |
| TOTAL CITATIONS | 15 |
| WORKS AS AUTHOR | 22 |
| WORKS AS EDITOR | 0 |
| FIRST PUBLICATION YEAR | 1969 |
| LATEST PUBLICATION YEAR | 2017 |
| H-INDEX | 2 |
Kappa and Rater Accuracy
Drawing parallels to classical test theory, this article clarifies the difference between rater accuracy and reliability and demonstrates how category marginal frequencies affect rater agreement and Cohen’s kappa (κ). Category assignment paradigms are developed: comparing raters to a standard (index) versus comparing two raters to one another (concordance), using both nonstochastic and stochastic category membership. Using a probability model to …
Conditioned emotional responses in racial prejudice
This study pursues a learning theory understanding of adverse race-elicited emotion and racially discriminatory behaviour. Multimodal classical conditioning argues that emotional reactions to neutral stimuli are built from aversive, appetitive and neutral experiences involving those stimuli in direct, observational and/or verbal modes. Modern two-factor theory argues that once adverse emotions are established, avoidance is likely to develop. Part…
Multimodal Classical Conditioning of Fear
The authors propose that a multimodal classical conditioning model be considered when clinicians or clinical researchers study the etiology of fears and anxieties learned by human beings. They argue that fears can be built through the combined effects of direct, observed, and verbally presented classical conditioning trials. Multimodal classical conditioning is offered as an alternative to the three pathways to fear argument prominent in the huma…
Kappa Reliabilities for Continuous Behaviors and Events
Cohen's kappa for measuring agreement between two observers using a discrete nominal scale is extended to measuring agreement over time for continuous nominal scales. The continuous kappa coefficient avoids problems encountered by the arbitrary division of real time durations into presence/absence frequencies in discrete intervals. The extension is simple but issues of independence and number of observations pose problems for significance testing
Agreement among 2 × 2 Agreement Indices
A variety of measures of reliability for two-category nominal scales are reviewed and compared. It is shown that upon correcting these indices for chance agreement, there are only five distinct indices: Fleiss's modification of A 1 , the φ coefficient, Cohen's kappa, and two intraclass coefficients. Additional derivations indicate that when marginals are held constant, all but one of the measures are linear functions of agreement and, thus, of on…
A Generalizability Study of the Conners' Teacher Rating Scale-Revised
The hyperactivity scale of the Conners' Teacher Rating Scale-Revised (CTRS-R) was investigated to compare teachers' use of this instrument to its use by independent classroom observers. Results of this study indicate that teacher ratings of children are highly stable over time. Independent observers agree with one another within an occasion both within a classroom and across classrooms; however, observations based on a one-hour period are not sta…
One Iota Fills the Quota
A paradoxical phenomenon of decreases in reliability as the number of elements averaged over increases is shown to be possible in multifacet reliability procedures (intraclass correlations or generalizability coefficients). Conditions governing this phenomenon are presented along with implications and cautions
Toward a further understanding of the intuitive personologists
Despite significant advances over the past three decades in our understanding of the implicit dangers in ad hoc psychometric procedures, some important questions remain, particularly as regards the nature of the underlying reasoning process by which subjectively meaningful theoretical impressions are formulated and expressed. The present article seeks to address this issue, with particular attention being given to the distinction between demonstr…
A Comparison of Multi-Attribute Generalizability Strategies
Two generalizability theory strategies are appropriate for analyzing multiple attributes: the first is an integrated design that includes the attributes as a facet; the other involves a strategy of analyzing variance and covariance components on "specific" attributes. Sums of squares, mean squares, and variance components of the integrated design are shown to be simple functions of their specific design counter parts. Of particular interest is a …
Maximally Reliable Composites for Unidimensional Measures
A general approach to obtaining weights and reliability coefficients of maximally reliable composites is offered for a variety of test theoretic models which assume a single common underlying dimension. The reliability maximizing weights are related to the theoretically specified true score scaling weights to show there is a constant relationship between them that is invariant under separate linear transformations on each variable in the system. …
The effect of social cues on the eating behavior of obese and normal subjects1
Schachter's externality hypothesis suggests that overweight individuals are more likely to be induced to eat by salient external cues than normal weight individuals. While a range of studies have demonstrated the plausibility of this hypothesis in the case of sensory stimuli (e.g., taste cues), there is little evidence that the hypothesis applies to social stimuli. The current study examines this latter proposition by exposing male and female, ov…
Integration and generalization of kappas for multiple raters
Integration and generalization of kappas for multiple raters
J. A. Cohen's kappa (1960) for measuring agreement between 2 raters, using a nominal scale, has been extended for use with multiple raters by R. J. Light (1971) and J. L. Fleiss (1971). In the present article, these indices are analyzed and reformulated in terms of agreement statistics based on all
Equivalencies among Canonical Factor Analysis, Canonical Reliability Analysis, and Principal Components Analysis
If variables are scaled so that they have equal errors of measurement, then the maximally reliable composites found in a canonical reliability analysis have highly desirable properties. Under this scaling transformation, canonical factor analysis on all nonerror variance, principal components analysis and canonical reliability analysis all yield equivalent results. Thus, the resulting components are successively maximally reliable and simultaneou…
Reliable Dimensions for Wisc Profiles
Measures of multivariate reliability are calculated for profiles of WISC subscales on three age groups. Profile dimensions based on reliability considerations are also established and matched across age groups and with factor analytic dimensions. While all possible differences among individual subscales are quite unreliable (about .51), a reduced set of five uncorrelated dimensions can be found with a more satisfactory reliability (about .87). In…
A Revised Definition for Suppressor Variables
In the two-predictor situation it is shown that traditional and negative suppressors increase the predictive value of a standard predictor beyond that suggested by the predictor's zero order validity. This effect of suppression is used to provide a revised definition of suppression and completely accounts for traditional and negative suppression. The revised definition, in conjunction with a two factor model, is shown to lead to a previously unde…
Estimating Profile Reliability and Maximally Reliable Composites
Two indices of profile reliability (Conger and Lipshitz's canonical reliability, p., and Bock's P) are shown to be equivalent in terms of the individual independent canonical composites; however, because of different weighting procedures, they yield different overall indices of profile reliability. A common formula is provided from which both indices can be derived. Based on Bock's multivariate analysis of variance approach to reliability, sample…
Suppressor Variables, Prediction, and the interpretation of Psychological Relationships
Evaluation of multimethod factor analysis
Internal Consistency of Verbal Response Classes
The traditional determination of adequacy of measurement in verbal conditioning studies is questioned. Reliance on the single criterion of inter-rater reliability ignores other critical aspects of the typical study, namely, the internal consistency of response classes and problems intrinsic to derived scores. Illustrative data are presented in which inter-rater reliabilities are quite respectable but the typical significance test for experimental…
A Dimensional Analysis of Mmpi Items
A method of analysis specifically designed for binary data was applied to 100 MMPI items. Sixty, items were carefully chosen to represent the nine major clinical scales with respect to direction of keying, social desirability scale value and endorsement frequency. The remaining 40 items were randomly chosen from items not appearing on any of these scales. Although a complete solution was obtained in five dimensions, only three were retained. The …
An Analysis of Ghiselli's Moderator Variable
A mathematical model for Ghiselli's moderator variable and index of predictability is developed. From this mathematical structure, conclusions and implications are drawn concerning the use of moderators in multiple regression and suppression. In addition, guides are given as to when and where to look for moderators. Finally, the structure is related to Wiggins' “components of variance” in order to show how moderator and index of predictability si…
Integration and generalization of kappas for multiple raters
J. A. Cohen's kappa (1960) for measuring agreement between 2 raters, using a nominal scale, has been extended for use with multiple raters by R. J. Light (1971) and J. L. Fleiss (1971). In the present article, these indices are analyzed and reformulated in terms of agreement statistics based on all
Conditioned emotional responses in racial prejudice
This study pursues a learning theory understanding of adverse race-elicited emotion and racially discriminatory behaviour. Multimodal classical conditioning argues that emotional reactions to neutral stimuli are built from aversive, appetitive and neutral experiences involving those stimuli in direct, observational and/or verbal modes. Modern two-factor theory argues that once adverse emotions are established, avoidance is likely to develop. Part…
Integration and generalization of kappas for multiple raters
Evaluation of multimethod factor analysis
A Dimensional Analysis of Mmpi Items
A method of analysis specifically designed for binary data was applied to 100 MMPI items. Sixty, items were carefully chosen to represent the nine major clinical scales with respect to direction of keying, social desirability scale value and endorsement frequency. The remaining 40 items were randomly chosen from items not appearing on any of these scales. Although a complete solution was obtained in five dimensions, only three were retained. The …
An Analysis of Ghiselli's Moderator Variable
A mathematical model for Ghiselli's moderator variable and index of predictability is developed. From this mathematical structure, conclusions and implications are drawn concerning the use of moderators in multiple regression and suppression. In addition, guides are given as to when and where to look for moderators. Finally, the structure is related to Wiggins' “components of variance” in order to show how moderator and index of predictability si…
Internal Consistency of Verbal Response Classes
The traditional determination of adequacy of measurement in verbal conditioning studies is questioned. Reliance on the single criterion of inter-rater reliability ignores other critical aspects of the typical study, namely, the internal consistency of response classes and problems intrinsic to derived scores. Illustrative data are presented in which inter-rater reliabilities are quite respectable but the typical significance test for experimental…
Evaluation of multimethod factor analysis
Suppressor Variables, Prediction, and the interpretation of Psychological Relationships
A Revised Definition for Suppressor Variables
In the two-predictor situation it is shown that traditional and negative suppressors increase the predictive value of a standard predictor beyond that suggested by the predictor's zero order validity. This effect of suppression is used to provide a revised definition of suppression and completely accounts for traditional and negative suppression. The revised definition, in conjunction with a two factor model, is shown to lead to a previously unde…
Estimating Profile Reliability and Maximally Reliable Composites
Two indices of profile reliability (Conger and Lipshitz's canonical reliability, p., and Bock's P) are shown to be equivalent in terms of the individual independent canonical composites; however, because of different weighting procedures, they yield different overall indices of profile reliability. A common formula is provided from which both indices can be derived. Based on Bock's multivariate analysis of variance approach to reliability, sample…
Reliable Dimensions for Wisc Profiles
Measures of multivariate reliability are calculated for profiles of WISC subscales on three age groups. Profile dimensions based on reliability considerations are also established and matched across age groups and with factor analytic dimensions. While all possible differences among individual subscales are quite unreliable (about .51), a reduced set of five uncorrelated dimensions can be found with a more satisfactory reliability (about .87). In…
Equivalencies among Canonical Factor Analysis, Canonical Reliability Analysis, and Principal Components Analysis
If variables are scaled so that they have equal errors of measurement, then the maximally reliable composites found in a canonical reliability analysis have highly desirable properties. Under this scaling transformation, canonical factor analysis on all nonerror variance, principal components analysis and canonical reliability analysis all yield equivalent results. Thus, the resulting components are successively maximally reliable and simultaneou…
Maximally Reliable Composites for Unidimensional Measures
A general approach to obtaining weights and reliability coefficients of maximally reliable composites is offered for a variety of test theoretic models which assume a single common underlying dimension. The reliability maximizing weights are related to the theoretically specified true score scaling weights to show there is a constant relationship between them that is invariant under separate linear transformations on each variable in the system. …
The effect of social cues on the eating behavior of obese and normal subjects1
Schachter's externality hypothesis suggests that overweight individuals are more likely to be induced to eat by salient external cues than normal weight individuals. While a range of studies have demonstrated the plausibility of this hypothesis in the case of sensory stimuli (e.g., taste cues), there is little evidence that the hypothesis applies to social stimuli. The current study examines this latter proposition by exposing male and female, ov…
Integration and generalization of kappas for multiple raters
Integration and generalization of kappas for multiple raters
J. A. Cohen's kappa (1960) for measuring agreement between 2 raters, using a nominal scale, has been extended for use with multiple raters by R. J. Light (1971) and J. L. Fleiss (1971). In the present article, these indices are analyzed and reformulated in terms of agreement statistics based on all
A Comparison of Multi-Attribute Generalizability Strategies
Two generalizability theory strategies are appropriate for analyzing multiple attributes: the first is an integrated design that includes the attributes as a facet; the other involves a strategy of analyzing variance and covariance components on "specific" attributes. Sums of squares, mean squares, and variance components of the integrated design are shown to be simple functions of their specific design counter parts. Of particular interest is a …
A Generalizability Study of the Conners' Teacher Rating Scale-Revised
The hyperactivity scale of the Conners' Teacher Rating Scale-Revised (CTRS-R) was investigated to compare teachers' use of this instrument to its use by independent classroom observers. Results of this study indicate that teacher ratings of children are highly stable over time. Independent observers agree with one another within an occasion both within a classroom and across classrooms; however, observations based on a one-hour period are not sta…
One Iota Fills the Quota
A paradoxical phenomenon of decreases in reliability as the number of elements averaged over increases is shown to be possible in multifacet reliability procedures (intraclass correlations or generalizability coefficients). Conditions governing this phenomenon are presented along with implications and cautions
Toward a further understanding of the intuitive personologists
Despite significant advances over the past three decades in our understanding of the implicit dangers in ad hoc psychometric procedures, some important questions remain, particularly as regards the nature of the underlying reasoning process by which subjectively meaningful theoretical impressions are formulated and expressed. The present article seeks to address this issue, with particular attention being given to the distinction between demonstr…
Agreement among 2 × 2 Agreement Indices
A variety of measures of reliability for two-category nominal scales are reviewed and compared. It is shown that upon correcting these indices for chance agreement, there are only five distinct indices: Fleiss's modification of A 1 , the φ coefficient, Cohen's kappa, and two intraclass coefficients. Additional derivations indicate that when marginals are held constant, all but one of the measures are linear functions of agreement and, thus, of on…
Kappa Reliabilities for Continuous Behaviors and Events
Cohen's kappa for measuring agreement between two observers using a discrete nominal scale is extended to measuring agreement over time for continuous nominal scales. The continuous kappa coefficient avoids problems encountered by the arbitrary division of real time durations into presence/absence frequencies in discrete intervals. The extension is simple but issues of independence and number of observations pose problems for significance testing
Multimodal Classical Conditioning of Fear
The authors propose that a multimodal classical conditioning model be considered when clinicians or clinical researchers study the etiology of fears and anxieties learned by human beings. They argue that fears can be built through the combined effects of direct, observed, and verbally presented classical conditioning trials. Multimodal classical conditioning is offered as an alternative to the three pathways to fear argument prominent in the huma…
Conditioned emotional responses in racial prejudice
This study pursues a learning theory understanding of adverse race-elicited emotion and racially discriminatory behaviour. Multimodal classical conditioning argues that emotional reactions to neutral stimuli are built from aversive, appetitive and neutral experiences involving those stimuli in direct, observational and/or verbal modes. Modern two-factor theory argues that once adverse emotions are established, avoidance is likely to develop. Part…
Kappa and Rater Accuracy
Drawing parallels to classical test theory, this article clarifies the difference between rater accuracy and reliability and demonstrates how category marginal frequencies affect rater agreement and Cohen’s kappa (κ). Category assignment paradigms are developed: comparing raters to a standard (index) versus comparing two raters to one another (concordance), using both nonstochastic and stochastic category membership. Using a probability model to …
Psychology (17 works) · Mathematics (16 works) · Statistics (16 works) · Computer Science (13 works) · Social Psychology (11 works) · Developmental psychology (8 works) · Econometrics (7 works) · Reliability (semiconductor) (7 works) · Cognitive psychology (6 works) · Reliability and Agreement in Measurement (5 works)