Lise Rakner
Biographic Data
| ID | 123355 |
|---|---|
| NAME | Lise Rakner |
| GIVEN NAMES | Lise |
| FAMILY NAME | Rakner |
| SIGNATURE | RAKNER L |
| AFFILIATIONS | University of Bergen |
| ORCID | 0000-0001-8100-983X |
| VERIFIED | Yes |
| TOTAL WORKS | 34 |
| TOTAL CITATIONS | 296 |
| AUTHOR COUNT | 32 |
| EDITOR COUNT | 2 |
| FIRST PUBLICATION YEAR | 1993 |
| LATEST PUBLICATION YEAR | 2026 |
| H-INDEX | 10 |
Democratic resilience in Africa: Elections, opposition, and social movements
Strategic Taxation: Fiscal Capacity and Accountability in African States
The politics of litigating and adjudicating electoral disputes: Evidence from Zambia
Elections are increasingly judicialized in many multiparty regimes. The ability to challenge flawed elections in independent courts can be crucial for democratization, may deter irregularities, and may prevent post-election violence. However, litigating against the elections of opposition candidates can also enable ruling parties to consolidate control following narrow electoral victories. In executive-dominated systems, such a strategy may be fa…
Legalised resistance to autocratisation in common law Africa
Since the 1990s, African incumbents have engaged in forms of rule-bending that weaken democratic institutions. The democratic backsliding witnessed weaponises law through processes of autocratic lawfare. However, civil society and the opposition may challenge the incumbent’s attempts at autocratisation through the use of law and, in so doing, resist processes of democratic backsliding. We refer to processes where civil society actors and oppositi…
Policymakers’ Abortion Preferences: Understanding the Intersection of Gender and Wealth
When are politicians willing to liberalize abortion laws? While restricted access to legal abortion affects millions of women around the world, there is relatively little understanding of the factors shaping the views of politicians who craft or uphold such restrictive laws. This study examines the impact of a public health framing commonly employed by activists to persuade politicians to reform abortion laws. We provide evidence that politicians…
Imagined solidarity around tax practices: A Two-Dimensional Framework Based on Motivating Logic and Group Boundaries
Understanding why citizens are willing to finance public goods is central to development and state capacity. Taxation can contribute to the common good, yet particularly in developing contexts, citizens may not benefit - or contribute - equally from such resources or across their lifetimes. How do taxpayers link solidarity to the practice of paying taxes? Taxation makes solidarity visible, but taxation practices also produce and shape solidarity.…
Democratic Backsliding in Africa?: Autocratization, Resilience, and Contention
Why have most African countries not achieved greater political liberalization? What explains the lack of progress toward the ideals of liberal democracy across the region? This book advances ongoing debates on democratic backsliding with specific reference to Africa. In examining how incumbent leaders in African countries attempt to contain societal pressures for greater democracy, the chapters explain how governments go beyond the standard tools…
Democratic Backsliding in Africa: Autocratization, Resilience, and Contention
Vote-buying, anti-corruption campaigns, and identity in African elections
Paying to party: Candidate resources and party switching in new democracies
Party switching among legislative candidates has important implications for accountability and representation in democratizing countries. We argue that party switching is influenced by campaign costs tied to the clientelistic politics that persist in many such countries. Candidates who are expected to personally pay for their campaigns, including handouts for voters, will seek to affiliate with parties that can lower those costs through personal …
Legal autocratisation ahead of the 2021 Zambian elections
Zambia experienced an episode of distinct democratic backsliding between 2011 and 2021. Autocratisation resulted from the deliberate use of legal mechanisms to enhance executive power. Tracing key legal changes through legal documents, press reports and informant interviews, the article examines this recent episode of autocratisation as a consequence of a poorly institutionalised party system in a fledgling and unconsolidated presidential democra…
Don’t Touch My Constitution! Civil Society Resistance to Democratic Backsliding in Africa ́s Pluralist Regimes
Analyzing civil society resistance to elite‐led democratic backsliding in Africa, the article argues that the non‐militant, civil society‐based transitions experienced in the 1990s left a legacy of a pro‐democracy cleavage that is mobilized when central constitutional rights are threatened. Building on insights from social movement theory, the paper argues that the conduct of multiparty elections at regular intervals provides an opportunity for c…
Do women face a different standard? The interplay of gender and corruption in the 2014 presidential elections in Malawi
Why the Gender of Traditional Authorities Matters: Intersectionality and Women’s Rights Advocacy in Malawi
Traditional leadership often coexists with modern political institutions; yet, we know little about how traditional and state authority cues—or those from male or female sources—affect public opinion. Using an original survey experiment of 1,381 Malawians embedded in the 2016 Local Governance Performance Index (LGPI), we randomly assign respondents into one of four treatment groups or a control group to hear messages about a child marriage reform…
The Other Side of Taxation: Extraction and Social Institutions in the Developing World
The fiscal sociology literature views the state at the heart of development, but in most developing countries, formal taxation is limited. Instead, local residents make substantial contributions outside the state to the provision of public goods. That is, they engage in what we call social extraction rather than state taxation. This article conceptualizes social extraction and the social institutions that drive extraction. Furthermore, it conside…
Politics a “Chilly” Environment for Undergraduate Women in Norway
Gender differences in academic performance and attitudes are widespread in male-stereotyped disciplines but rarely are studied in the social sciences. To assess the extent that gender influences the behavior of undergraduate women in political science, participation was analyzed in a large (N = 130) introductory comparative-politics class at the University of Bergen—a large public university in Norway. In the 2016 fall semester, observers documen…
Politics in the Developing World
"An impressive line-up of international contributors provides a comprehensive and accessible introduction to politics in the developing world. The first four parts explore the theoretical approaches, the changing nature and role of the state, and the major policy issues that confront all developing countries. The final parts set out a diverse range of country case studies, representing all the main geographical regions. These country case studies…
Tax bargains in unlikely places: The politics of Zambian mining taxes
Political capital of ruling parties after regime change: Contrasting successful insurgencies to peaceful pro-democracy movements
The cases of the African National Congress (ANC) in South Africa and the Movement for Multiparty Democracy (MMD) in Zambia show major differences in the extent to which incoming ruling parties after a regime change build strong party systems. The ANC institutionalised a hegemonic party apparatus after coming to power, while the MMD did not. These differences, we contend, are related to the ANC’s history of a prolonged struggle that included viole…
Institutionalizing the pro-democracy movements: The case of Zambia's Movement for Multiparty Democracy
In this contribution the challenges of political opposition is addressed through a focus on the problems of institutionalizing parties and party systems in sub-Saharan Africa. Challenges of party institutionalization in a context of political and economic liberalization, where external international donors have become an active part of these political processes, are illustrated through a case study of Zambia. Zambia is chosen as a case because it…
In search of the impact of international support for political parties in new democracies: Malawi and Zambia compared
Democracy assistance programmes have gradually included support for political parties in addition to support for civil society, parliaments and the electoral process. But, does international party assistance contribute to party and party system institutionalization? This analysis addresses the issue of impact of external support for political parties using the case of one donor, the Netherlands Institute for Multiparty Democracy (NIMD) and the im…
Turnaround: The National Resistance Movement and the Reintroduction of a Multiparty System in Uganda
This article addresses the process behind the decision of the National Resistance Movement (NRM) to reintroduce multiparty politics in Uganda. Restrictions on party activity were introduced when the NRM assumed power in 1986 and were upheld in a referendum in 2000. In March 2003 the NRM u-turned on the issue and agreed a return to multiparty politics in Uganda. The article seeks to explain why the NRM leadership sanctioned a transition to multipa…
Democratization by Elections? Opposition Weakness in Africa
The position of opposition parties in national legislature is critical to any strategy of "democratization by elections". But the third wave of democratization in Africa has resulted in only a limited increase in political competition. Regardless of the nature and quality of electoral institutions, opposition parties have remained numerically weak and fragmented, and unable to carry out their role as a political counterweight to the victorious pa…
Hybrid regimes and the challenges of deepening and sustaining democracy in developing countries1
A wave of democratisation swept across the developing world from the 1980s onwards. However, despite the momentous transformation that this so-called ‘Third Wave’ has brought to formal political structures in regions ranging from Africa to Asia to Latin America, only a limited number of countries have succeeded in establishing consolidated and functioning democratic regimes. Instead, many of these new regimes have become stuck in transition, comb…
Fissions and Fusions, Foes and Friends: Party System Restructuring in Malawi in the 2004 General Elections
The issue of presidential term limits is an important political norm on the African continent, but the effects of this on the institutionalization of the party systems have so far not been analyzed. The authors argue that the third presidential election represents a window of opportunity for politicians aspiring for the top position, leading to party fragmentation (fissions) and party mergers (fusions). Politicians pursue an office-seeking strate…
Democratization by Elections? Opposition Weakness in Africa
The position of opposition parties in national legislature is critical to any strategy of "democratization by elections". But the third wave of democratization in Africa has resulted in only a limited increase in political competition. Regardless of the nature and quality of electoral institutions, opposition parties have remained numerically weak and fragmented, and unable to carry out their role as a political counterweight to the victorious pa…
Turnaround: The National Resistance Movement and the Reintroduction of a Multiparty System in Uganda
This article addresses the process behind the decision of the National Resistance Movement (NRM) to reintroduce multiparty politics in Uganda. Restrictions on party activity were introduced when the NRM assumed power in 1986 and were upheld in a referendum in 2000. In March 2003 the NRM u-turned on the issue and agreed a return to multiparty politics in Uganda. The article seeks to explain why the NRM leadership sanctioned a transition to multipa…
From Dominant to Competitive Party System: The Zambian Experience 1991–2001
In this article we analyse the changes in the party system in Zambia in the period 1991 to 2001. Based on changes observed in terms of the number of parties, their relative size, ‘ideological distance’ and interaction patterns, we characterize the changes as movement from a dominant to a competitive party system after the 2001 elections. In the second part of the article we explain the changes and contend that the structure of political instituti…
Fissions and Fusions, Foes and Friends: Party System Restructuring in Malawi in the 2004 General Elections
The issue of presidential term limits is an important political norm on the African continent, but the effects of this on the institutionalization of the party systems have so far not been analyzed. The authors argue that the third presidential election represents a window of opportunity for politicians aspiring for the top position, leading to party fragmentation (fissions) and party mergers (fusions). Politicians pursue an office-seeking strate…
Paying to party: Candidate resources and party switching in new democracies
Party switching among legislative candidates has important implications for accountability and representation in democratizing countries. We argue that party switching is influenced by campaign costs tied to the clientelistic politics that persist in many such countries. Candidates who are expected to personally pay for their campaigns, including handouts for voters, will seek to affiliate with parties that can lower those costs through personal …
Why the Gender of Traditional Authorities Matters: Intersectionality and Women’s Rights Advocacy in Malawi
Traditional leadership often coexists with modern political institutions; yet, we know little about how traditional and state authority cues—or those from male or female sources—affect public opinion. Using an original survey experiment of 1,381 Malawians embedded in the 2016 Local Governance Performance Index (LGPI), we randomly assign respondents into one of four treatment groups or a control group to hear messages about a child marriage reform…
The Other Side of Taxation: Extraction and Social Institutions in the Developing World
The fiscal sociology literature views the state at the heart of development, but in most developing countries, formal taxation is limited. Instead, local residents make substantial contributions outside the state to the provision of public goods. That is, they engage in what we call social extraction rather than state taxation. This article conceptualizes social extraction and the social institutions that drive extraction. Furthermore, it conside…
Institutionalizing the pro-democracy movements: The case of Zambia's Movement for Multiparty Democracy
In this contribution the challenges of political opposition is addressed through a focus on the problems of institutionalizing parties and party systems in sub-Saharan Africa. Challenges of party institutionalization in a context of political and economic liberalization, where external international donors have become an active part of these political processes, are illustrated through a case study of Zambia. Zambia is chosen as a case because it…
Stuck in transition: Electoral processes in Zambia 1991–2001
Zambia has held three multiparty elections since its restoration of democracy in 1991. This peaceful transition raised expectations of a smooth process towards democratic consolidation. But similar to experiences in other African countries and Eastern Europe, the Zambian democratic process has remained stuck in a 'transitional zone' between actual democracy and authoritarian systems. This article argues that Zambian elections fall short of the ex…
Legal autocratisation ahead of the 2021 Zambian elections
Zambia experienced an episode of distinct democratic backsliding between 2011 and 2021. Autocratisation resulted from the deliberate use of legal mechanisms to enhance executive power. Tracing key legal changes through legal documents, press reports and informant interviews, the article examines this recent episode of autocratisation as a consequence of a poorly institutionalised party system in a fledgling and unconsolidated presidential democra…
Business associations and growth coalitions in Sub-Saharan Africa
Why are 'growth coalitions' involving business interest groups and governments so rare in Africa? How has democratisation affected the possibilities for growth coalitions? In three cases with varying degrees of democracy - Mauritius, Zambia, and Zimbabwe - we find that hypotheses about growth coalitions that place importance on the organisation of the business sector are generally borne out. Yet even when the business community is organised in an…
In search of the impact of international support for political parties in new democracies: Malawi and Zambia compared
Democracy assistance programmes have gradually included support for political parties in addition to support for civil society, parliaments and the electoral process. But, does international party assistance contribute to party and party system institutionalization? This analysis addresses the issue of impact of external support for political parties using the case of one donor, the Netherlands Institute for Multiparty Democracy (NIMD) and the im…
Vote-buying, anti-corruption campaigns, and identity in African elections
Do women face a different standard? The interplay of gender and corruption in the 2014 presidential elections in Malawi
Political capital of ruling parties after regime change: Contrasting successful insurgencies to peaceful pro-democracy movements
The cases of the African National Congress (ANC) in South Africa and the Movement for Multiparty Democracy (MMD) in Zambia show major differences in the extent to which incoming ruling parties after a regime change build strong party systems. The ANC institutionalised a hegemonic party apparatus after coming to power, while the MMD did not. These differences, we contend, are related to the ANC’s history of a prolonged struggle that included viole…
Accountability Through Tax Reform? Reflections From Sub-Saharan Africa
The Politics of Revenue Mobilisation: Explaining Continuity in Namibian Tax Policies
The article analyses the development of Namibia's system of taxation since independence in 1990. Drawing on the institutional literature derived from Western historical experiences, it suggests that politicians face four main constraints when seeking to increase revenue. These constraints relate to (a) the governments' bargaining position vis-à-vis their citizens, (b) the nature and capacity of the political institutions of government, (c) the st…
The Pluralist Paradox: The Decline of Economic Interest Groups in Zambia in the 1990s
New democracies attempting to implement political and economic reform simultaneously are considered to face a dilemma, as democratization may undermine economic reform by encouraging political participation and empowering interest groups that are unlikely to benefit from reform. This article compares relations between interest groups and the government under one-party and multiparty rule in Zambia. Contrary to the assumptions of pluralist theory,…
Hybrid regimes and the challenges of deepening and sustaining democracy in developing countries1
A wave of democratisation swept across the developing world from the 1980s onwards. However, despite the momentous transformation that this so-called ‘Third Wave’ has brought to formal political structures in regions ranging from Africa to Asia to Latin America, only a limited number of countries have succeeded in establishing consolidated and functioning democratic regimes. Instead, many of these new regimes have become stuck in transition, comb…
Legalised resistance to autocratisation in common law Africa
Since the 1990s, African incumbents have engaged in forms of rule-bending that weaken democratic institutions. The democratic backsliding witnessed weaponises law through processes of autocratic lawfare. However, civil society and the opposition may challenge the incumbent’s attempts at autocratisation through the use of law and, in so doing, resist processes of democratic backsliding. We refer to processes where civil society actors and oppositi…
Democratic resilience in Africa: Elections, opposition, and social movements
Policymakers’ Abortion Preferences: Understanding the Intersection of Gender and Wealth
When are politicians willing to liberalize abortion laws? While restricted access to legal abortion affects millions of women around the world, there is relatively little understanding of the factors shaping the views of politicians who craft or uphold such restrictive laws. This study examines the impact of a public health framing commonly employed by activists to persuade politicians to reform abortion laws. We provide evidence that politicians…
Politics a “Chilly” Environment for Undergraduate Women in Norway
Gender differences in academic performance and attitudes are widespread in male-stereotyped disciplines but rarely are studied in the social sciences. To assess the extent that gender influences the behavior of undergraduate women in political science, participation was analyzed in a large (N = 130) introductory comparative-politics class at the University of Bergen—a large public university in Norway. In the 2016 fall semester, observers documen…
Political Transition and Economic Reform. The Role of Labour in Zambian National Politics
Lise Rakner, ‘Political Transition and Economic Reform. The Role of Labour in Zambian National Politics’, Forum for Development Studies, No. 2, 1993, pp. 131–147. Zambia is currently attempting to restructure its economy along lines of market-integrated reforms. However, the economic restructuring is being pursued by a newly elected democratic government representing both labour, farming and business interests which is refuting existing theoretic…
Is Rational Choice Institutionalism Useful for Development Studies
Lise Rakner, ‘Is Rational Choice Institutionalism Useful for development Studies?’, Forum for Development Studies, 1995:1, 77–94. The article discusses to what extent theories of institutionalism based within rational choice reasoning provide a theoretical basis for understanding institutional formation and change. The article further considers whether rational choice institutionalism transgresses the boundaries of rational choice theory in its e…
Økonomiske og sosiale rettigheter: En diskusjon av Asbjørn Eides «Making Human Rights Universal: Achievements and Prospects»
The Politics of Revenue Mobilisation: Explaining Continuity in Namibian Tax Policies
The article analyses the development of Namibia's system of taxation since independence in 1990. Drawing on the institutional literature derived from Western historical experiences, it suggests that politicians face four main constraints when seeking to increase revenue. These constraints relate to (a) the governments' bargaining position vis-à-vis their citizens, (b) the nature and capacity of the political institutions of government, (c) the st…
The Pluralist Paradox: The Decline of Economic Interest Groups in Zambia in the 1990s
New democracies attempting to implement political and economic reform simultaneously are considered to face a dilemma, as democratization may undermine economic reform by encouraging political participation and empowering interest groups that are unlikely to benefit from reform. This article compares relations between interest groups and the government under one-party and multiparty rule in Zambia. Contrary to the assumptions of pluralist theory,…
Accountability Through Tax Reform? Reflections From Sub-Saharan Africa
Business associations and growth coalitions in Sub-Saharan Africa
Why are 'growth coalitions' involving business interest groups and governments so rare in Africa? How has democratisation affected the possibilities for growth coalitions? In three cases with varying degrees of democracy - Mauritius, Zambia, and Zimbabwe - we find that hypotheses about growth coalitions that place importance on the organisation of the business sector are generally borne out. Yet even when the business community is organised in an…
From Dominant to Competitive Party System: The Zambian Experience 1991–2001
In this article we analyse the changes in the party system in Zambia in the period 1991 to 2001. Based on changes observed in terms of the number of parties, their relative size, ‘ideological distance’ and interaction patterns, we characterize the changes as movement from a dominant to a competitive party system after the 2001 elections. In the second part of the article we explain the changes and contend that the structure of political instituti…
Stuck in transition: Electoral processes in Zambia 1991–2001
Zambia has held three multiparty elections since its restoration of democracy in 1991. This peaceful transition raised expectations of a smooth process towards democratic consolidation. But similar to experiences in other African countries and Eastern Europe, the Zambian democratic process has remained stuck in a 'transitional zone' between actual democracy and authoritarian systems. This article argues that Zambian elections fall short of the ex…
Fissions and Fusions, Foes and Friends: Party System Restructuring in Malawi in the 2004 General Elections
The issue of presidential term limits is an important political norm on the African continent, but the effects of this on the institutionalization of the party systems have so far not been analyzed. The authors argue that the third presidential election represents a window of opportunity for politicians aspiring for the top position, leading to party fragmentation (fissions) and party mergers (fusions). Politicians pursue an office-seeking strate…
Hybrid regimes and the challenges of deepening and sustaining democracy in developing countries1
A wave of democratisation swept across the developing world from the 1980s onwards. However, despite the momentous transformation that this so-called ‘Third Wave’ has brought to formal political structures in regions ranging from Africa to Asia to Latin America, only a limited number of countries have succeeded in establishing consolidated and functioning democratic regimes. Instead, many of these new regimes have become stuck in transition, comb…
Turnaround: The National Resistance Movement and the Reintroduction of a Multiparty System in Uganda
This article addresses the process behind the decision of the National Resistance Movement (NRM) to reintroduce multiparty politics in Uganda. Restrictions on party activity were introduced when the NRM assumed power in 1986 and were upheld in a referendum in 2000. In March 2003 the NRM u-turned on the issue and agreed a return to multiparty politics in Uganda. The article seeks to explain why the NRM leadership sanctioned a transition to multipa…
Democratization by Elections? Opposition Weakness in Africa
The position of opposition parties in national legislature is critical to any strategy of "democratization by elections". But the third wave of democratization in Africa has resulted in only a limited increase in political competition. Regardless of the nature and quality of electoral institutions, opposition parties have remained numerically weak and fragmented, and unable to carry out their role as a political counterweight to the victorious pa…
In search of the impact of international support for political parties in new democracies: Malawi and Zambia compared
Democracy assistance programmes have gradually included support for political parties in addition to support for civil society, parliaments and the electoral process. But, does international party assistance contribute to party and party system institutionalization? This analysis addresses the issue of impact of external support for political parties using the case of one donor, the Netherlands Institute for Multiparty Democracy (NIMD) and the im…
Institutionalizing the pro-democracy movements: The case of Zambia's Movement for Multiparty Democracy
In this contribution the challenges of political opposition is addressed through a focus on the problems of institutionalizing parties and party systems in sub-Saharan Africa. Challenges of party institutionalization in a context of political and economic liberalization, where external international donors have become an active part of these political processes, are illustrated through a case study of Zambia. Zambia is chosen as a case because it…
Political capital of ruling parties after regime change: Contrasting successful insurgencies to peaceful pro-democracy movements
The cases of the African National Congress (ANC) in South Africa and the Movement for Multiparty Democracy (MMD) in Zambia show major differences in the extent to which incoming ruling parties after a regime change build strong party systems. The ANC institutionalised a hegemonic party apparatus after coming to power, while the MMD did not. These differences, we contend, are related to the ANC’s history of a prolonged struggle that included viole…
Politics in the Developing World
"An impressive line-up of international contributors provides a comprehensive and accessible introduction to politics in the developing world. The first four parts explore the theoretical approaches, the changing nature and role of the state, and the major policy issues that confront all developing countries. The final parts set out a diverse range of country case studies, representing all the main geographical regions. These country case studies…
Tax bargains in unlikely places: The politics of Zambian mining taxes
The Other Side of Taxation: Extraction and Social Institutions in the Developing World
The fiscal sociology literature views the state at the heart of development, but in most developing countries, formal taxation is limited. Instead, local residents make substantial contributions outside the state to the provision of public goods. That is, they engage in what we call social extraction rather than state taxation. This article conceptualizes social extraction and the social institutions that drive extraction. Furthermore, it conside…
Politics a “Chilly” Environment for Undergraduate Women in Norway
Gender differences in academic performance and attitudes are widespread in male-stereotyped disciplines but rarely are studied in the social sciences. To assess the extent that gender influences the behavior of undergraduate women in political science, participation was analyzed in a large (N = 130) introductory comparative-politics class at the University of Bergen—a large public university in Norway. In the 2016 fall semester, observers documen…
Why the Gender of Traditional Authorities Matters: Intersectionality and Women’s Rights Advocacy in Malawi
Traditional leadership often coexists with modern political institutions; yet, we know little about how traditional and state authority cues—or those from male or female sources—affect public opinion. Using an original survey experiment of 1,381 Malawians embedded in the 2016 Local Governance Performance Index (LGPI), we randomly assign respondents into one of four treatment groups or a control group to hear messages about a child marriage reform…
Don’t Touch My Constitution! Civil Society Resistance to Democratic Backsliding in Africa ́s Pluralist Regimes
Analyzing civil society resistance to elite‐led democratic backsliding in Africa, the article argues that the non‐militant, civil society‐based transitions experienced in the 1990s left a legacy of a pro‐democracy cleavage that is mobilized when central constitutional rights are threatened. Building on insights from social movement theory, the paper argues that the conduct of multiparty elections at regular intervals provides an opportunity for c…
Do women face a different standard? The interplay of gender and corruption in the 2014 presidential elections in Malawi
Democratic Backsliding in Africa?: Autocratization, Resilience, and Contention
Why have most African countries not achieved greater political liberalization? What explains the lack of progress toward the ideals of liberal democracy across the region? This book advances ongoing debates on democratic backsliding with specific reference to Africa. In examining how incumbent leaders in African countries attempt to contain societal pressures for greater democracy, the chapters explain how governments go beyond the standard tools…
Democratic Backsliding in Africa: Autocratization, Resilience, and Contention
Political science (32 works) · Law (27 works) · Politics (27 works) · Political economy (22 works) · Economics (20 works) · Law (19 works) · Sociology (18 works) · Democracy (16 works) · Political Conflict and Governance (12 works) · Development economics (11 works)