Justin J Gengler
Biographic Data
| ID | 2184161 |
|---|---|
| NAME | Justin J Gengler |
| GIVEN NAMES | Justin J |
| FAMILY NAME | Gengler |
| SIGNATURE | GENGLER J J |
| AFFILIATIONS | Qatar University |
| ORCID | 0000-0001-9190-8062 |
| VERIFIED | Yes |
| TOTAL WORKS | 26 |
| TOTAL CITATIONS | 79 |
| AUTHOR COUNT | 26 |
| EDITOR COUNT | 0 |
| FIRST PUBLICATION YEAR | 2012 |
| LATEST PUBLICATION YEAR | 2026 |
| H-INDEX | 5 |
Putting the ‘Public’ Back into Middle East Public Opinion Research: Evidence from Qatar
Survey research on public opinion in the Middle East and North Africa (MENA) has dramatically increased in both quantity and quality over the past generation. However, this has not been matched by discussion about the intellectual assumptions of public opinion research in the region as it expands into non-Western and/or non-democratic settings. To remedy this deficiency, we begin this type of investigation by assessing the resonance of public opi…
Sharing citizenship: Economic Competition, Cultural Threat, and Immigration Preferences in the Rentier State
This paper proposes a framework of immigrant acceptance that accounts for both group-level and individual-level characteristics and conducts a novel test of the cultural threat hypothesis. Immigrants’ individual traits are conceptualized as secondary to their identity-based claims. The empirical strategy leverages a set of survey experiments conducted in the extreme rentier state of Qatar, where naturalization poses tangible negative financial co…
Constraints on Female Labor Force Participation in Qatar: Understanding the Effects of Marriage, Family, and Traditional Values
This paper examines constraints to female labor force participation in Qatar, a country where state revenue from natural resource rents means any citizen can secure a public sector job should they seek employment. Using data from an original survey and focus groups, we find that although Qataris are generally in support of female labor force participation – both in principle and for their own relatives – concerns remain about the impact of women …
Arab identity and attitudes toward migration in Kuwait and Qatar
This paper explores the attitudes of expatriate workers towards the future of migration to the Arab Gulf states. We conduct an online survey and framing experiment administered to more than 2900 expatriate workers in Kuwait and Qatar. We find that Arab migrants are less supportive of future migration than other migrants and also exhibit high levels of ethnic-group bias in favor of fellow Arabs. Evidence from the framing experiment suggests that A…
On the scarcity and promise of survey-based studies of international relations and security affairs in the Middle East
Despite a dramatic increase in the availability and quality of public opinion data from the Middle East and North Africa (MENA) since the Arab uprisings of 2011, the use of surveys to study international relations and security affairs in the region remains notably rare. One likely reason for the dearth of survey-based work is the assumption that there are relatively few important questions regarding which citizens in the mostly authoritarian MENA…
Bargaining Power: A Framework for Understanding Varieties of Migration Experience
This article introduces the concept of bargaining power as a framework for understanding varieties of migration experience and behavior. We argue that migration and settlement experiences vary according to a migrant’s leverage — or bargaining power — afforded by their individual cultural and socioeconomic capital (internal bargaining power) and their home country’s political and physical security characteristics (external bargaining power). These…
Citizenship and Surveys: Group Conflict and Nationality-of-Interviewer Effects in Arab Public Opinion Data
More research than ever before uses public opinion data to investigate society and politics in the Middle East and North Africa (MENA). Ethnic identities are widely theorized to mediate many of the political attitudes and behaviors that MENA surveys commonly seek to measure, but, to date, no research has systematically investigated how the observable ethnic category(s) of the interviewer may influence participation and answers given in Middle Eas…
Refinancing the Rentier State: Welfare, Inequality, and Citizen Preferences toward Fiscal Reform in the Gulf Oil Monarchies
Against the backdrop of fiscal reform efforts in Middle East oil producers, this article proposes a general framework for understanding how citizens relate to welfare benefits in the rentier state and then tests some observable implications using original survey data from the quintessential rentier state of Qatar. Using two novel choice experiments, we ask Qataris to choose between competing forms of economic subsidies and state spending, produci…
Why Do You Ask?’ The Nature and Impacts of Attitudes towards Public Opinion Surveys in the Arab World
For the first time in an Arab country, this article examines attitudes toward public opinion surveys and their effects on survey-taking behavior. The study uses original survey data from Qatar, the diverse population of which permits comparisons across cultural–geographical groupings within a single, non-democratic polity. The authors find that Qatari and expatriate Arabs hold positive views of surveys, both in absolute terms and relative to indi…
Society and State in Post-Blockade Qatar: Lessons for the Arab Gulf Region
This article examines key questions of citizen-state, citizen-citizen, and citizen-expatriate relations in the Arab Gulf states through the lens of the 2017 Qatar blockade. It utilizes original public opinion survey data that allow examination of the embargo’s short-term impacts on social and political relations in Qatar as well as broader trends observed over the period from 2010 to 2019. Results lend support to some existing qualitative account…
Information, peer comparison and social interdependence: Theorising the impacts of Covid-19 on Gulf domestic politics
This article theorizes three layers of impacts of the Coronavirus crisis on internal GCC politics, and then identifies potential causal mechanisms operating at each level. A first and primary layer concerns governance, and revolves around the state’s performance in managing the virus outbreak. A secondary level relates to scarcity and inequality, and is linked to the state’s handling of economic and social knock-on effects of the pandemic. A tert…
Sectarianism from the Top Down or Bottom Up? Explaining the Middle East’s Unlikely De-sectarianization after the Arab Spring
Sectarian politics has retreated across the Middle East in the years after the Arab Spring, even as conflict between the region’s two main sectarian actors—Iran and Saudi Arabia—has intensified. This essay explores this incongruence as a way of better understanding the nature and drivers of sectarianism and de-sectarianization in MENA states, supported by public opinion and other data that substantiate the post-2011 decline in Arabs’ concern over…
Social identity and coethnic voting in the Middle East: Experimental evidence from Qatar
What explains widespread coethnic voting in the Middle East? The prevailing understanding revolves around clientelism: the view that MENA citizens support coethnic parties and candidates in order to most easily or effectively extract resources from the patrimonial state. Previous research has thus neglected non-economic explanations of ethnic-based preferences and outcomes in MENA elections, including social biases long identified in other settin…
Conducting Research on the World’s Changing Mediascape: Principles and Practices
As digital technology sweeps across the globe, bringing far-reaching changes to the media environment and beyond, international research on the nature and impact of these changes is essential. This commentary situates media research within the broader flow of knowledge and offers a critical perspective on the principles and practices that should guide that research to maximize its potential contribution to both knowledge and to the public
Crisis, State Legitimacy, and Political Participation in a Non-Democracy: How Qatar Withstood the 2017 Blockade
This article uses rare, nationally representative survey data collected before and after the blockade of Qatar that began in June 2017 to assess its impact on citizens' orientations toward the Gulf Cooperation Council, relations with key foreign countries, and domestic politics. The study illuminates a critical element missing from existing explanations of Qatar's unforeseen resilience in the face of the blockade, namely the role of ordinary Qata…
What Money Can’t Buy: Wealth, Inequality, and Economic Satisfaction in the Rentier State
How do perceived inequalities in allocation impact citizen satisfaction with state-distributed benefits in rentier societies? Resource-rich rentier regimes are widely theorized to maintain the economic and political satisfaction of subjects through wealth distribution. Yet, while qualitative research in the rentier states of the Arabian Peninsula has identified unequal distribution as a source of discontent, the relative importance of objective v…
A Hard Test of Individual Heterogeneity in Response Scale Usage: Evidence From Qatar
Exaggerating good governance: Regime type and score inflation among executive survey informants
Researchers and policymakers often rely on executive surveys to understand and promote good governance. In doing so, they assume that the evaluations provided by these well‐informed respondents are not systematically influenced by regime type. However, regime‐embedded executives often have a personal stake in the survey outcomes, incentivizing them to exaggerate good governance. This paper compares World Economic Forum Executive Opinion Survey re…
A Hard Test of Individual Heterogeneity in Response Scale Usage: Evidence From Qatar
A common approach to correcting for interpersonal differences in response category thresholds in surveys is the use of anchoring vignettes. Here we present results from the first applications of anchoring vignettes in Qatar and, to our knowledge, the Arab world. We extend previous findings both geographically and substantively to show that a range of social and demographic variables account for important variation in response scale use in the dom…
Creating and sustaining Islamic financial centers: Bahrain in the wake of financial and political crises
Although primarily concentrated in countries with Muslim majorities, Islamic finance has become a global industry representing both a decentering of the global financial architecture and the emergence of an urban network that resides beyond the confines of traditional world city literature. While geographers have identified the “Mecca’s” of the Islamic finance industry – one of which is Bahrain – there remains a need to identify the factors neces…
Renegotiating the Ruling Bargain: Selling Fiscal Reform in the GCC
Built upon depletable reservoirs of oil and natural gas, the petro-states of the Arab Gulf have, since their beginning, always had one eye fixated on the end: the exhaustion of their life-giving natural resources, and the radical economic and potentially political transformations that promise as a result. For decades, the steady countdown of this doomsday clock has both framed and impelled government efforts to guarantee a more ordered transition…
Group Conflict and Political Mobilization in Bahrain and the Arab Gulf: Rethinking the Rentier State
Read an excerpt from the book Connect with the author: Twitter Religion and Politics in Bahrain blog
International
A call for participant applications was issued in December. Following a competitive selection process, up to 26 qualified applicants (22 scholars from Africa and four North American doctoral students) will be invited to participate. The two-week program will examine research on the sources of
Royal Factionalism, the Khawalid, and the Securitization of ‘the Shīʿa Problem’ in Bahrain
The competing strategies of political rule observed in Bahrain since the 1999 succession of King Ḥamad bin ʿĪsā Āl Khalīfa were brought into stark relief as a result of the popular uprising initiated in February 2011. It is argued that the protracted opposition-government stalemate that has characterized King Ḥamad's reign is in large part a reflection of an internal ruling family struggle to define the overall framework within which the problem …
Civic Life and Democratic Citizenship in Qatar Findings from the First Qatar World Values Survey
The present study examines the Arab nation that has remained least affected by the regional upheaval that has gripped much of the Middle East and North Africa since the beginning of 2011: the Gulf state of Qatar. Using previously unavailable data from the inaugural Qatar World Values Survey administered in December 2010, we explore the political orientations of ordinary Qatari citizens. Specifically, we extend several recent empirical analyses th…
Social identity and coethnic voting in the Middle East: Experimental evidence from Qatar
What explains widespread coethnic voting in the Middle East? The prevailing understanding revolves around clientelism: the view that MENA citizens support coethnic parties and candidates in order to most easily or effectively extract resources from the patrimonial state. Previous research has thus neglected non-economic explanations of ethnic-based preferences and outcomes in MENA elections, including social biases long identified in other settin…
What Money Can’t Buy: Wealth, Inequality, and Economic Satisfaction in the Rentier State
How do perceived inequalities in allocation impact citizen satisfaction with state-distributed benefits in rentier societies? Resource-rich rentier regimes are widely theorized to maintain the economic and political satisfaction of subjects through wealth distribution. Yet, while qualitative research in the rentier states of the Arabian Peninsula has identified unequal distribution as a source of discontent, the relative importance of objective v…
Refinancing the Rentier State: Welfare, Inequality, and Citizen Preferences toward Fiscal Reform in the Gulf Oil Monarchies
Against the backdrop of fiscal reform efforts in Middle East oil producers, this article proposes a general framework for understanding how citizens relate to welfare benefits in the rentier state and then tests some observable implications using original survey data from the quintessential rentier state of Qatar. Using two novel choice experiments, we ask Qataris to choose between competing forms of economic subsidies and state spending, produci…
Why Do You Ask?’ The Nature and Impacts of Attitudes towards Public Opinion Surveys in the Arab World
For the first time in an Arab country, this article examines attitudes toward public opinion surveys and their effects on survey-taking behavior. The study uses original survey data from Qatar, the diverse population of which permits comparisons across cultural–geographical groupings within a single, non-democratic polity. The authors find that Qatari and expatriate Arabs hold positive views of surveys, both in absolute terms and relative to indi…
Renegotiating the Ruling Bargain: Selling Fiscal Reform in the GCC
Built upon depletable reservoirs of oil and natural gas, the petro-states of the Arab Gulf have, since their beginning, always had one eye fixated on the end: the exhaustion of their life-giving natural resources, and the radical economic and potentially political transformations that promise as a result. For decades, the steady countdown of this doomsday clock has both framed and impelled government efforts to guarantee a more ordered transition…
Citizenship and Surveys: Group Conflict and Nationality-of-Interviewer Effects in Arab Public Opinion Data
More research than ever before uses public opinion data to investigate society and politics in the Middle East and North Africa (MENA). Ethnic identities are widely theorized to mediate many of the political attitudes and behaviors that MENA surveys commonly seek to measure, but, to date, no research has systematically investigated how the observable ethnic category(s) of the interviewer may influence participation and answers given in Middle Eas…
Civic Life and Democratic Citizenship in Qatar Findings from the First Qatar World Values Survey
The present study examines the Arab nation that has remained least affected by the regional upheaval that has gripped much of the Middle East and North Africa since the beginning of 2011: the Gulf state of Qatar. Using previously unavailable data from the inaugural Qatar World Values Survey administered in December 2010, we explore the political orientations of ordinary Qatari citizens. Specifically, we extend several recent empirical analyses th…
Exaggerating good governance: Regime type and score inflation among executive survey informants
Researchers and policymakers often rely on executive surveys to understand and promote good governance. In doing so, they assume that the evaluations provided by these well‐informed respondents are not systematically influenced by regime type. However, regime‐embedded executives often have a personal stake in the survey outcomes, incentivizing them to exaggerate good governance. This paper compares World Economic Forum Executive Opinion Survey re…
The Political Costs of Qatar's Western Orientation
Peer Reviewed
Constraints on Female Labor Force Participation in Qatar: Understanding the Effects of Marriage, Family, and Traditional Values
This paper examines constraints to female labor force participation in Qatar, a country where state revenue from natural resource rents means any citizen can secure a public sector job should they seek employment. Using data from an original survey and focus groups, we find that although Qataris are generally in support of female labor force participation – both in principle and for their own relatives – concerns remain about the impact of women …
Sharing citizenship: Economic Competition, Cultural Threat, and Immigration Preferences in the Rentier State
This paper proposes a framework of immigrant acceptance that accounts for both group-level and individual-level characteristics and conducts a novel test of the cultural threat hypothesis. Immigrants’ individual traits are conceptualized as secondary to their identity-based claims. The empirical strategy leverages a set of survey experiments conducted in the extreme rentier state of Qatar, where naturalization poses tangible negative financial co…
Bargaining Power: A Framework for Understanding Varieties of Migration Experience
This article introduces the concept of bargaining power as a framework for understanding varieties of migration experience and behavior. We argue that migration and settlement experiences vary according to a migrant’s leverage — or bargaining power — afforded by their individual cultural and socioeconomic capital (internal bargaining power) and their home country’s political and physical security characteristics (external bargaining power). These…
Creating and sustaining Islamic financial centers: Bahrain in the wake of financial and political crises
Although primarily concentrated in countries with Muslim majorities, Islamic finance has become a global industry representing both a decentering of the global financial architecture and the emergence of an urban network that resides beyond the confines of traditional world city literature. While geographers have identified the “Mecca’s” of the Islamic finance industry – one of which is Bahrain – there remains a need to identify the factors neces…
The Political Costs of Qatar's Western Orientation
Peer Reviewed
Royal Factionalism, the Khawalid, and the Securitization of ‘the Shīʿa Problem’ in Bahrain
The competing strategies of political rule observed in Bahrain since the 1999 succession of King Ḥamad bin ʿĪsā Āl Khalīfa were brought into stark relief as a result of the popular uprising initiated in February 2011. It is argued that the protracted opposition-government stalemate that has characterized King Ḥamad's reign is in large part a reflection of an internal ruling family struggle to define the overall framework within which the problem …
Civic Life and Democratic Citizenship in Qatar Findings from the First Qatar World Values Survey
The present study examines the Arab nation that has remained least affected by the regional upheaval that has gripped much of the Middle East and North Africa since the beginning of 2011: the Gulf state of Qatar. Using previously unavailable data from the inaugural Qatar World Values Survey administered in December 2010, we explore the political orientations of ordinary Qatari citizens. Specifically, we extend several recent empirical analyses th…
Group Conflict and Political Mobilization in Bahrain and the Arab Gulf: Rethinking the Rentier State
Read an excerpt from the book Connect with the author: Twitter Religion and Politics in Bahrain blog
International
A call for participant applications was issued in December. Following a competitive selection process, up to 26 qualified applicants (22 scholars from Africa and four North American doctoral students) will be invited to participate. The two-week program will examine research on the sources of
A Hard Test of Individual Heterogeneity in Response Scale Usage: Evidence From Qatar
A common approach to correcting for interpersonal differences in response category thresholds in surveys is the use of anchoring vignettes. Here we present results from the first applications of anchoring vignettes in Qatar and, to our knowledge, the Arab world. We extend previous findings both geographically and substantively to show that a range of social and demographic variables account for important variation in response scale use in the dom…
Creating and sustaining Islamic financial centers: Bahrain in the wake of financial and political crises
Although primarily concentrated in countries with Muslim majorities, Islamic finance has become a global industry representing both a decentering of the global financial architecture and the emergence of an urban network that resides beyond the confines of traditional world city literature. While geographers have identified the “Mecca’s” of the Islamic finance industry – one of which is Bahrain – there remains a need to identify the factors neces…
Renegotiating the Ruling Bargain: Selling Fiscal Reform in the GCC
Built upon depletable reservoirs of oil and natural gas, the petro-states of the Arab Gulf have, since their beginning, always had one eye fixated on the end: the exhaustion of their life-giving natural resources, and the radical economic and potentially political transformations that promise as a result. For decades, the steady countdown of this doomsday clock has both framed and impelled government efforts to guarantee a more ordered transition…
A Hard Test of Individual Heterogeneity in Response Scale Usage: Evidence From Qatar
Exaggerating good governance: Regime type and score inflation among executive survey informants
Researchers and policymakers often rely on executive surveys to understand and promote good governance. In doing so, they assume that the evaluations provided by these well‐informed respondents are not systematically influenced by regime type. However, regime‐embedded executives often have a personal stake in the survey outcomes, incentivizing them to exaggerate good governance. This paper compares World Economic Forum Executive Opinion Survey re…
Conducting Research on the World’s Changing Mediascape: Principles and Practices
As digital technology sweeps across the globe, bringing far-reaching changes to the media environment and beyond, international research on the nature and impact of these changes is essential. This commentary situates media research within the broader flow of knowledge and offers a critical perspective on the principles and practices that should guide that research to maximize its potential contribution to both knowledge and to the public
Crisis, State Legitimacy, and Political Participation in a Non-Democracy: How Qatar Withstood the 2017 Blockade
This article uses rare, nationally representative survey data collected before and after the blockade of Qatar that began in June 2017 to assess its impact on citizens' orientations toward the Gulf Cooperation Council, relations with key foreign countries, and domestic politics. The study illuminates a critical element missing from existing explanations of Qatar's unforeseen resilience in the face of the blockade, namely the role of ordinary Qata…
What Money Can’t Buy: Wealth, Inequality, and Economic Satisfaction in the Rentier State
How do perceived inequalities in allocation impact citizen satisfaction with state-distributed benefits in rentier societies? Resource-rich rentier regimes are widely theorized to maintain the economic and political satisfaction of subjects through wealth distribution. Yet, while qualitative research in the rentier states of the Arabian Peninsula has identified unequal distribution as a source of discontent, the relative importance of objective v…
Society and State in Post-Blockade Qatar: Lessons for the Arab Gulf Region
This article examines key questions of citizen-state, citizen-citizen, and citizen-expatriate relations in the Arab Gulf states through the lens of the 2017 Qatar blockade. It utilizes original public opinion survey data that allow examination of the embargo’s short-term impacts on social and political relations in Qatar as well as broader trends observed over the period from 2010 to 2019. Results lend support to some existing qualitative account…
Information, peer comparison and social interdependence: Theorising the impacts of Covid-19 on Gulf domestic politics
This article theorizes three layers of impacts of the Coronavirus crisis on internal GCC politics, and then identifies potential causal mechanisms operating at each level. A first and primary layer concerns governance, and revolves around the state’s performance in managing the virus outbreak. A secondary level relates to scarcity and inequality, and is linked to the state’s handling of economic and social knock-on effects of the pandemic. A tert…
Sectarianism from the Top Down or Bottom Up? Explaining the Middle East’s Unlikely De-sectarianization after the Arab Spring
Sectarian politics has retreated across the Middle East in the years after the Arab Spring, even as conflict between the region’s two main sectarian actors—Iran and Saudi Arabia—has intensified. This essay explores this incongruence as a way of better understanding the nature and drivers of sectarianism and de-sectarianization in MENA states, supported by public opinion and other data that substantiate the post-2011 decline in Arabs’ concern over…
Social identity and coethnic voting in the Middle East: Experimental evidence from Qatar
What explains widespread coethnic voting in the Middle East? The prevailing understanding revolves around clientelism: the view that MENA citizens support coethnic parties and candidates in order to most easily or effectively extract resources from the patrimonial state. Previous research has thus neglected non-economic explanations of ethnic-based preferences and outcomes in MENA elections, including social biases long identified in other settin…
On the scarcity and promise of survey-based studies of international relations and security affairs in the Middle East
Despite a dramatic increase in the availability and quality of public opinion data from the Middle East and North Africa (MENA) since the Arab uprisings of 2011, the use of surveys to study international relations and security affairs in the region remains notably rare. One likely reason for the dearth of survey-based work is the assumption that there are relatively few important questions regarding which citizens in the mostly authoritarian MENA…
Bargaining Power: A Framework for Understanding Varieties of Migration Experience
This article introduces the concept of bargaining power as a framework for understanding varieties of migration experience and behavior. We argue that migration and settlement experiences vary according to a migrant’s leverage — or bargaining power — afforded by their individual cultural and socioeconomic capital (internal bargaining power) and their home country’s political and physical security characteristics (external bargaining power). These…
Citizenship and Surveys: Group Conflict and Nationality-of-Interviewer Effects in Arab Public Opinion Data
More research than ever before uses public opinion data to investigate society and politics in the Middle East and North Africa (MENA). Ethnic identities are widely theorized to mediate many of the political attitudes and behaviors that MENA surveys commonly seek to measure, but, to date, no research has systematically investigated how the observable ethnic category(s) of the interviewer may influence participation and answers given in Middle Eas…
Refinancing the Rentier State: Welfare, Inequality, and Citizen Preferences toward Fiscal Reform in the Gulf Oil Monarchies
Against the backdrop of fiscal reform efforts in Middle East oil producers, this article proposes a general framework for understanding how citizens relate to welfare benefits in the rentier state and then tests some observable implications using original survey data from the quintessential rentier state of Qatar. Using two novel choice experiments, we ask Qataris to choose between competing forms of economic subsidies and state spending, produci…
Why Do You Ask?’ The Nature and Impacts of Attitudes towards Public Opinion Surveys in the Arab World
For the first time in an Arab country, this article examines attitudes toward public opinion surveys and their effects on survey-taking behavior. The study uses original survey data from Qatar, the diverse population of which permits comparisons across cultural–geographical groupings within a single, non-democratic polity. The authors find that Qatari and expatriate Arabs hold positive views of surveys, both in absolute terms and relative to indi…
Arab identity and attitudes toward migration in Kuwait and Qatar
This paper explores the attitudes of expatriate workers towards the future of migration to the Arab Gulf states. We conduct an online survey and framing experiment administered to more than 2900 expatriate workers in Kuwait and Qatar. We find that Arab migrants are less supportive of future migration than other migrants and also exhibit high levels of ethnic-group bias in favor of fellow Arabs. Evidence from the framing experiment suggests that A…
Sharing citizenship: Economic Competition, Cultural Threat, and Immigration Preferences in the Rentier State
This paper proposes a framework of immigrant acceptance that accounts for both group-level and individual-level characteristics and conducts a novel test of the cultural threat hypothesis. Immigrants’ individual traits are conceptualized as secondary to their identity-based claims. The empirical strategy leverages a set of survey experiments conducted in the extreme rentier state of Qatar, where naturalization poses tangible negative financial co…
Constraints on Female Labor Force Participation in Qatar: Understanding the Effects of Marriage, Family, and Traditional Values
This paper examines constraints to female labor force participation in Qatar, a country where state revenue from natural resource rents means any citizen can secure a public sector job should they seek employment. Using data from an original survey and focus groups, we find that although Qataris are generally in support of female labor force participation – both in principle and for their own relatives – concerns remain about the impact of women …
Political science (23 works) · Politics (18 works) · Law (16 works) · Sociology (14 works) · Economics (13 works) · Law (13 works) · Psychology (9 works) · Socioeconomic Development in MENA (9 works) · Middle East and Rwanda Conflicts (8 works) · Political economy (7 works)