C Zimmerman
Biographic Data
| ID | 22742 |
|---|---|
| NAME | C Zimmerman |
| GIVEN NAMES | C |
| FAMILY NAME | Zimmerman |
| SIGNATURE | ZIMMERMAN C |
| AFFILIATIONS | London School of Hygiene & Tropical Medicine |
| ORCID | 0000-0002-7815-4320 |
| VERIFIED | Yes |
| TOTAL WORKS | 46 |
| TOTAL CITATIONS | 202 |
| AUTHOR COUNT | 46 |
| EDITOR COUNT | 0 |
| FIRST PUBLICATION YEAR | 2002 |
| LATEST PUBLICATION YEAR | 2026 |
| H-INDEX | 6 |
The human cost of exploitation: Expert insights on estimating the Global Burden of Disease of migrant labour exploitation
The Global Burden of Disease (GBD) remains the most widely accepted metric in quantifying health burdens of disease states and risk factors globally. Studies have attempted to quantify the GBD associated with work-related exposures and conditions, but none have focused on migrant workers, who are known to experience higher risks of work-related injuries and deaths, and diverse forms of abuse and exploitation. Moreover, few studies have critically…
Pathways of harm and benefit: A fuzzy-set qualitative comparative analysis of work and living conditions of child domestic workers in Liberia
Invisible girls, visible harms: Health, well-being, and safety among child domestic workers in Myanmar
Globally, an estimated 17.2 million children work as child domestic workers (CDWs), with nearly 3.7 million exposed to hazardous working conditions. Despite their prevalence, CDWs remain a hidden and hard-to-reach population. This study examines the hidden voices of CDWs in Myanmar, exploring their working conditions, experiences of abuse and isolation and the impact of being away from families on their well-being. In 2023, we conducted in-depth …
"Butterflies in a jar": How girls and young women conceptualise wellbeing in conflict-affected Myanmar
Since the 2021 coup in Myanmar, the country has been driven into further social, political and economic turmoil. The United Nations estimates that 18.6 million people need humanitarian support. Among those most affected are adolescent girls aged 10-19 years who, as adolescents and young women, face unique risks to their health and wellbeing and require tailored interventions to promote their health and wellbeing both now and in the future. Suppor…
Conflict, caregiver violence and gendered parenting: A cross-sectional study among adolescent girls and young women participating in a girls’ empowerment programme in Myanmar
Across Myanmar, armed conflict and political instability have exacerbated poverty, food insecurity, and disrupted essential social protection services, severely affected people’s health and wellbeing. This is especially pertinent for girls and young women, for whom gender inequalities are exacerbated during conflict, increasing their risk of various forms of violence. We aimed to measure the prevalence of parent/caregiver-perpetrated violence aga…
Conflict exposure and mental health: A survey of adolescent girls and young women in Myanmar post the 2021 coup d’état
Our results highlight the urgent need for tailored interventions for adolescents, particularly girls and young women, who are exposed to armed conflict. In contexts of protracted instability and uncertainty, such as in Myanmar, interventions should explore ways to foster a sense of social safety, especially among adolescent girls who are displaced or living away from their families. Strengthening social safety systems may help to reduce the adver…
Child labour in cocoa growing regions of Ghana and Côte d’Ivoire: An analysis of academic attainment in children engaged in hazardous labour
This paper examines the relationship between child labour and educational attainment and explores the distinction between harmful and non-harmful agricultural cocoa work. We conduct a secondary analysis of data on 3,338 children who reported attending school in 2018 across cocoa growing regions of Ghana and Côte d'Ivoire. To address differences between harmful and non-harmful child labour, we differentiated work completed by a child by hazardous …
Accidental traffickers: Qualitative findings on labour recruitment in Ethiopia
BACKGROUND: The growth of labour migration and associated risks of human trafficking and exploitation remain significant global human rights and health challenges. There is increasing policy interest in addressing structural determinants of adverse migration outcomes such as migrants' use of informal employment recruiters. In Ethiopia, "safe migration" policies have introduced regulations for registered private employment agencies and penalties f…
Hazardous Child Labour, Psychosocial Functioning, and School Dropouts among Children in Bangladesh: A Cross-Sectional Analysis of Unicef’s Multiple Indicator Cluster Surveys (Mics)
Child labour is a common financial coping strategy in poor households, especially in low-and middle-income countries with many children working under hazardous conditions. Little is known about the linkages between hazardous work conditions and psycho-social and educational outcomes. We analysed the Bangladesh Multiple Indicator Cluster Survey (BMICS) round 6 to assess the association between the exposure variables, including child labour, hazard…
An intervention-focused review of modern slave labor in Brazil’s mining sector
Mining constitutes an important sector in Brazil’s economy and has a history of modern slave labor. Brazil is the second largest producer of iron ore and manganese, a major exporter of gold and copper, and holds 40% of the world’s Tantalum reserves. The aim of this review is to summarize literature on modern slave labor in artisinal and small-scale mining in Brazil’s gold mining sector. Peer-reviewed and gray literature were screened for relevanc…
Labor Recruitment and Human Trafficking: Analysis of a Global Trafficking Survivor Database
Over the past decade, third-party labor recruiters who facilitate employment for migrant workers across low- and middle-income countries have often been considered by the counter-trafficking community as one of the main entry points into human trafficking. In response, anti-trafficking prevention programs have increasingly focused on addressing exploitative recruitment in migrants’ origin countries. Such programs may advocate for increased regula…
Migrant Women’s Health and Safety: Why Do Ethiopian Women Choose Irregular Migration to the Middle East for Domestic Work
Our study highlights challenges associated with antitrafficking initiatives that discourage irregular migration and suggests new perspectives to address the health risks linked to labour migration
Mechanisms for community prevention of violence against women in low- and middle-income countries: A realist approach to a comparative analysis of qualitative data
Human Trafficking: Results of a 5-Year Theory-Based Evaluation of Interventions to Prevent Trafficking of Women From South Asia
Preventing modern slavery is of global interest, but evidence on interventions remains weak. This paper presents findings from a 5-year theory-based evaluation of an empowerment and knowledge-building intervention to prevent the exploitation of South Asian female migrant workers. The evaluation used realist evaluation techniques to examine the intervention mechanisms, outcomes, and context. Findings from qualitative and quantitative data from Nep…
A Cross-sectional Comparison of the Mental Health of People Trafficked to the UK for Domestic Servitude, for Sexual Exploitation and for Labor Exploitation
The experiences and needs of trafficking victims have received increasing attention. However, variation in the experiences and needs of people trafficked for different types of labor have been poorly explored. People trafficked for domestic servitude may represent a particularly vulnerable group but are typically subsumed within labor exploitation. Our aim is to describe the characteristics, experiences, and mental health outcomes of a sample of …
Coping with migration-related stressors - a qualitative study of Nepali male labour migrants
Migrants need greater clarifications on their rights with respect to contract discrepancies, the types of support available, how and from whom to access them once in destination. Improvements to the support mechanisms migrants can access as well as strengthening migrant-led initiatives in destination countries to support labour migrants' in managing stressors are needed. These may contribute to reducing the experiences and impact of such stressor…
I had tears in my eyes but I just left without looking back”. A qualitative study of migration-related stressors amongst Nepali male labour migrants
Labour migration has become a crucial livelihood strategy in settings where employment options are limited. Such opportunities come with potential benefits but also introduce stressors. This study explores migration-related stressors amongst returnee male Nepali international labour migrants. We conducted a qualitative study in Kathmandu amongst 42 returnee male international labour migrants. We explored migration decisions, processes, experience…
Victims or suspects? Identifying and assisting potentially trafficked fishermen: A qualitative study with stakeholders and first responders in Thailand
Prompted by reports of 'sea slavery' in the fishing industry and threats of sanctions, Thailand has faced pressure to eradicate human trafficking the fishing sector. Although the Thai government has responded with anti-trafficking policies, there remains little understanding about their implementation. Specifically, little is known about how government agencies, NGOs or industry perceive "trafficking", and no research examines how trafficked fish…
Human trafficking and violence: Findings from the largest global dataset of trafficking survivors
An analysis of the world's largest data set on trafficking victims indicates that violence is indeed prevalent and gendered. While these results show that trafficking-related violence is common, findings suggest there are patterns of violence, which highlights that post-trafficking services must address the specific support needs of different survivors
Occupational health outcomes among international migrant workers: A systematic review and meta-analysis
Nepali Women’s Labour Migration: Between Protection and Proscription
With the increase in female migration, especially in the domestic sector, and accompanying reports of worker exploitation and abuse, labour-sending countries are grappling with the question of how to protect these workers. Drawing on a critical feminist policy analysis framework, this article analyses the policy and regulatory frameworks of Nepal related to female labour migration and examines their implications. Our analysis indicates that Nepal…
Responding to the health needs of trafficked people: A qualitative study of professionals in England and Scotland
Trafficked people require timely and ongoing access to healthcare services. Yet, many encounter difficulties accessing and utilising healthcare services, both while in situations of exploitation and after their escape. This research investigated barriers that hinder healthcare providers from identifying, providing care and making necessary referrals for trafficked people in the United Kingdom (UK). Semi-structured, face-to-face interviews were co…
The UCL–Lancet Commission on Migration and Health: The health of a world on the move
“Because if we talk about health issues first, it is easier to talk about human trafficking”; findings from a mixed methods study on health needs and service provision among migrant and trafficked fis…
BACKGROUND: Human trafficking in the fishing industry or "sea slavery" in the Greater Mekong Subregion is reported to involve some of the most extreme forms of exploitation and abuse. A largely unregulated sector, commercial fishing boats operate in international waters far from shore and outside of national jurisdiction, where workers are commonly subjected to life-threatening risks. Yet, research on the health needs of trafficked fishermen is s…
Mental health, violence and psychological coercion among female and male trafficking survivors in the greater Mekong sub-region: A cross-sectional study
The experiences of violence and coercion in female and male trafficking survivors differed and were associated with an elevated prevalence of anxiety, depression, and PTSD in both females and males. Mental health services must be an integral part of service provision, recovery and re-integration for trafficked females and males
Human trafficking and health: A conceptual model to inform policy, intervention and research
The Relationship of Trauma to Mental Disorders Among Trafficked and Sexually Exploited Girls and Women
Objectives. We explored the association between traumatic events and mental health among girls and women trafficked for sexual exploitation. Methods. We used subscales of the Brief Symptom Inventory and Harvard Trauma Questionnaire to interview 204 trafficked girls and women in 7 posttrafficking service settings. Multivariate logistic regression models based on interview data were fitted for depression, anxiety, and posttraumatic stress disorder …
The Health of Trafficked Women: A Survey of Women Entering Posttrafficking Services in Europe
Trained counselors interviewed 192 women who had been trafficked and sexually exploited about abuse and evaluated their physical and mental health status within 14 days of entry into posttrafficking services. Most reported physical or sexual violence while trafficked (95%), pre-trafficking abuse (59%), and multiple posttrafficking physical and psychological problems. Newly identified trafficked women require immediate attention to address posttra…
Gender-based violence and socioeconomic inequalities: Does living in more deprived neighbourhoods increase women's risk of intimate partner violence
Human Trafficking and Health: A Survey of Male and Female Survivors in England
Objectives. To investigate physical and mental health and experiences of violence among male and female trafficking survivors in a high-income country. Methods. Our data were derived from a cross-sectional survey of 150 men and women in England who were in contact with posttrafficking support services. Interviews took place over 18 months, from June 2013 to December 2014. Results. Participants had been trafficked for sexual exploitation (29%), do…
Mechanisms for community prevention of violence against women in low- and middle-income countries: A realist approach to a comparative analysis of qualitative data
An intervention-focused review of modern slave labor in Brazil’s mining sector
Mining constitutes an important sector in Brazil’s economy and has a history of modern slave labor. Brazil is the second largest producer of iron ore and manganese, a major exporter of gold and copper, and holds 40% of the world’s Tantalum reserves. The aim of this review is to summarize literature on modern slave labor in artisinal and small-scale mining in Brazil’s gold mining sector. Peer-reviewed and gray literature were screened for relevanc…
Responding to the health needs of trafficked people: A qualitative study of professionals in England and Scotland
Trafficked people require timely and ongoing access to healthcare services. Yet, many encounter difficulties accessing and utilising healthcare services, both while in situations of exploitation and after their escape. This research investigated barriers that hinder healthcare providers from identifying, providing care and making necessary referrals for trafficked people in the United Kingdom (UK). Semi-structured, face-to-face interviews were co…
Labor Recruitment and Human Trafficking: Analysis of a Global Trafficking Survivor Database
Over the past decade, third-party labor recruiters who facilitate employment for migrant workers across low- and middle-income countries have often been considered by the counter-trafficking community as one of the main entry points into human trafficking. In response, anti-trafficking prevention programs have increasingly focused on addressing exploitative recruitment in migrants’ origin countries. Such programs may advocate for increased regula…
Human trafficking and violence: Findings from the largest global dataset of trafficking survivors
An analysis of the world's largest data set on trafficking victims indicates that violence is indeed prevalent and gendered. While these results show that trafficking-related violence is common, findings suggest there are patterns of violence, which highlights that post-trafficking services must address the specific support needs of different survivors
Victims or suspects? Identifying and assisting potentially trafficked fishermen: A qualitative study with stakeholders and first responders in Thailand
Prompted by reports of 'sea slavery' in the fishing industry and threats of sanctions, Thailand has faced pressure to eradicate human trafficking the fishing sector. Although the Thai government has responded with anti-trafficking policies, there remains little understanding about their implementation. Specifically, little is known about how government agencies, NGOs or industry perceive "trafficking", and no research examines how trafficked fish…
I had tears in my eyes but I just left without looking back”. A qualitative study of migration-related stressors amongst Nepali male labour migrants
Labour migration has become a crucial livelihood strategy in settings where employment options are limited. Such opportunities come with potential benefits but also introduce stressors. This study explores migration-related stressors amongst returnee male Nepali international labour migrants. We conducted a qualitative study in Kathmandu amongst 42 returnee male international labour migrants. We explored migration decisions, processes, experience…
Migration Planning Among Female Prospective Labour Migrants from Nepal: A Comparison of First‐Time and Repeat‐Migrants
As international female labour migration has increased, so too have efforts to prevent the exploitation of labour migrants. However, evidence to underpin prevention efforts remains limited, with little known about labour migrants’ migration planning processes. Using data from a survey of female prospective labour migrants from Nepal, this article compares socio‐demographics and migration‐planning processes between first‐time and repeat‐migrants. …
Violence against women: Global scope and magnitude
The Health of Trafficked Women: A Survey of Women Entering Posttrafficking Services in Europe
Trained counselors interviewed 192 women who had been trafficked and sexually exploited about abuse and evaluated their physical and mental health status within 14 days of entry into posttrafficking services. Most reported physical or sexual violence while trafficked (95%), pre-trafficking abuse (59%), and multiple posttrafficking physical and psychological problems. Newly identified trafficked women require immediate attention to address posttra…
Trafficking in persons: A health concern
Human trafficking is a phenomenon that has now been documented in most regions in the world. Although trafficking of women and girls for sexual exploitation is the most commonly recognised form of trafficking, it is widely acknowledged that human trafficking also involves men, women and children who are trafficked for various forms of labour exploitation and into other abusive circumstances. Despite the violence and harm inherent in most traffick…
The Relationship of Trauma to Mental Disorders Among Trafficked and Sexually Exploited Girls and Women
Objectives. We explored the association between traumatic events and mental health among girls and women trafficked for sexual exploitation. Methods. We used subscales of the Brief Symptom Inventory and Harvard Trauma Questionnaire to interview 204 trafficked girls and women in 7 posttrafficking service settings. Multivariate logistic regression models based on interview data were fitted for depression, anxiety, and posttraumatic stress disorder …
Migration and Health: A Framework for 21st Century Policy-Making
In the introductory article to a six-part PLoS Medicine series on Migration & Health, series guest editors Cathy Zimmerman, Mazeda Hossain, and Ligia Kiss outline a migratory process framework that involves five phases: pre-departure, travel, destination, interception, and return.
Women in post-trafficking services in moldova: Diagnostic interviews over two time periods to assess returning women's mental health
Trafficked women returning to their country of origin are likely to suffer serious psychological distress that may endure well beyond the time they return. Women found to have co-morbid PTSD or other forms of anxiety and depression immediately post-return should be offered evidenced-based mental health treatment for at least the standard 12-month period of rehabilitation
Human trafficking and health: A conceptual model to inform policy, intervention and research
Gender-based violence and socioeconomic inequalities: Does living in more deprived neighbourhoods increase women's risk of intimate partner violence
Gender norms and economic empowerment intervention to reduce intimate partner violence against women in rural Côte d’Ivoire: A randomized controlled pilot study
BACKGROUND: Gender-based violence against women, including intimate partner violence (IPV), is a pervasive health and human rights concern. However, relatively little intervention research has been conducted on how to reduce IPV in settings impacted by conflict. The current study reports on the evaluation of the incremental impact of adding "gender dialogue groups" to an economic empowerment group savings program on levels of IPV. This study took…
Labour Exploitation and Health: A Case Series of Men and Women Seeking Post-Trafficking Services
Factors affecting adherence to short-course ARV prophylaxis for preventing mother-to-child transmission of HIV in sub-Saharan Africa: A review and lessons for future elimination
Despite the biomedical potential to eliminate vertical HIV transmission, drug adherence to short regimens is often sub-optimal. To inform future programmes, we reviewed evidence on the factors influencing maternal and infant drug adherence to preventing MTCT drug regimens at delivery in sub-Saharan Africa. A literature review yielding 14 studies on adherence to drug regimes among HIV-positive pregnant women and mothers in sub-Saharan Africa was c…
Working with men to prevent intimate partner violence in a conflict-affected setting: A pilot cluster randomized controlled trial in rural Côte d’Ivoire
clinicaltrials.gov NCT01803932
Prevention of violence against women and girls: Lessons from practice
Health of men, women, and children in post-trafficking services in Cambodia, Thailand, and Vietnam: An observational cross-sectional study
BACKGROUND: Trafficking is a crime of global proportions involving extreme forms of exploitation and abuse. Yet little research has been done of the health risks and morbidity patterns for men, women, and children trafficked for various forms of forced labour. METHODS: We carried out face-to-face interviews with a consecutive sample of individuals entering 15 post-trafficking services in Cambodia, Thailand, and Vietnam. We asked participants abou…
Addressing violence against women: A call to action
History of Persecution and Health Outcomes Among U.S. Refugees
Prevalence and risk of violence and the mental, physical and sexual health problems associated with human trafficking: An updated systematic review
Background. To update and expand on a 2012 systematic review of the prevalence and risk of violence and the prevalence and risk of physical, mental and sexual health problems among trafficked people. Method. Systematic review and meta-analysis. Searches of 15 electronic databases of peer-reviewed articles and doctoral theses were supplemented by reference screening, citation tracking of included articles and expert recommendations. Studies were i…
Human Trafficking and Health: A Survey of Male and Female Survivors in England
Objectives. To investigate physical and mental health and experiences of violence among male and female trafficking survivors in a high-income country. Methods. Our data were derived from a cross-sectional survey of 150 men and women in England who were in contact with posttrafficking support services. Interviews took place over 18 months, from June 2013 to December 2014. Results. Participants had been trafficked for sexual exploitation (29%), do…
Human trafficking and exploitation: A global health concern
In this collection review, Cathy Zimmerman and colleague introduce the PLOS Medicine Collection on Human Trafficking, Exploitation and Health, laying out the magnitude of the global trafficking problem and offering a public health policy framework to guide responses to trafficking.
Learning from returnee Ethiopian migrant domestic workers: A qualitative assessment to reduce the risk of human trafficking
BACKGROUND: International migration has become a global political priority, with growing concern about the scale of human trafficking, hazardous work conditions, and resulting psychological and physical morbidity among migrants. Ethiopia remains a significant "source" country for female domestic workers to the Middle East and Gulf States, despite widespread reports of exploitation and abuse. Prior to introduction of a "safe migration" interventio…
The UCL–Lancet Commission on Migration and Health: The health of a world on the move
“Because if we talk about health issues first, it is easier to talk about human trafficking”; findings from a mixed methods study on health needs and service provision among migrant and trafficked fis…
BACKGROUND: Human trafficking in the fishing industry or "sea slavery" in the Greater Mekong Subregion is reported to involve some of the most extreme forms of exploitation and abuse. A largely unregulated sector, commercial fishing boats operate in international waters far from shore and outside of national jurisdiction, where workers are commonly subjected to life-threatening risks. Yet, research on the health needs of trafficked fishermen is s…
Mental health, violence and psychological coercion among female and male trafficking survivors in the greater Mekong sub-region: A cross-sectional study
The experiences of violence and coercion in female and male trafficking survivors differed and were associated with an elevated prevalence of anxiety, depression, and PTSD in both females and males. Mental health services must be an integral part of service provision, recovery and re-integration for trafficked females and males
Migration Planning Among Female Prospective Labour Migrants from Nepal: A Comparison of First‐Time and Repeat‐Migrants
As international female labour migration has increased, so too have efforts to prevent the exploitation of labour migrants. However, evidence to underpin prevention efforts remains limited, with little known about labour migrants’ migration planning processes. Using data from a survey of female prospective labour migrants from Nepal, this article compares socio‐demographics and migration‐planning processes between first‐time and repeat‐migrants. …
Occupational health outcomes among international migrant workers: A systematic review and meta-analysis
Medicine (33 works) · Sex work and related issues (25 works) · Environmental health (22 works) · Poison control (22 works) · Psychology (22 works) · Political science (20 works) · Suicide prevention (18 works) · Psychiatry (17 works) · Sociology (15 works) · Mental health (13 works)