Sam Clarke
Biographic Data
| ID | 3602115 |
|---|---|
| NAME | Sam Clarke |
| GIVEN NAMES | Sam |
| FAMILY NAME | Clarke |
| SIGNATURE | CLARKE S |
| AFFILIATIONS | University of Southern California |
| ORCID | 0000-0001-8383-0584 |
| VERIFIED | Yes |
| TOTAL WORKS | 16 |
| TOTAL CITATIONS | 5 |
| WORKS AS AUTHOR | 16 |
| WORKS AS EDITOR | 0 |
| FIRST PUBLICATION YEAR | 1961 |
| LATEST PUBLICATION YEAR | 2026 |
| H-INDEX | 1 |
Ensemble size perception as a case study of the bounds of adaptation
Repulsive adaptation effects are widely assumed to obtain for all perceptually represented dimensions. However, the ubiquity of adaptation effects within perception remains untested. We examined ensemble size adaptation as a case study to probe whether adaptation occurs for all perceptually encoded properties. Across four experiments, we investigated whether observers adapt to average size and/or cumulative size of dot arrays. In Experiments 1a, …
EI Search
Many widely available search engines prioritise quick access to information, without acknowledging that knowledge is situated across different disciplines. EI Search is the first search engine to empower users’ curiosity about the nature of knowledge and boost epistemic insight into how disciplines work. Unlike conventional search tools that treat knowledge as a monolith, EI Search prompts users to explore complex questions through up to ten disc…
Can we “see” value? Spatiotopic “visual” adaptation to an imperceptible dimension
Oak National Academy’s Aila, Education AI Companies and the Anthropomorphising of AI
The integration of artificial intelligence (AI) in education is becoming increasingly prevalent, with educational AI companies employing diverse marketing strategies to engage educators. This paper investigates the extent to which these companies utilise anthropomorphic language on their websites as part of their communication, focusing on how such language shapes perceptions and expectations among educators. The research centres around Aila, an …
Seven reasons to (still) doubt the existence of number adaptation
Exploring the landscape of GenAI and education literature
The research landscape surrounding Generative Artificial Intelligence (GenAI) and education is rapidly expanding, characterised by a dynamic array of themes and sub‐themes. This paper aims to construct a comprehensive taxonomy that categorises the current literature on the integration of GenAI in educational settings. To do so, a systematic analysis was conducted first, which filtered and selected 30 pieces of literature. Within this literature, …
Number adaptation
Number nativism 1
Number Nativism is the view that humans innately represent precise natural numbers. Despite a long and venerable history, it is often considered hopelessly out of touch with the empirical record. I argue that this is a mistake. After clarifying Number Nativism and distancing it from related conjectures, I distinguish three arguments which have been seen to refute the view. I argue that, while popular, two of these arguments miss the mark, and fai…
Is pain modular
We suggest that pain processing has a modular architecture. We begin by motivating the (widely assumed but seldom defended) conjecture that pain processing comprises inferential mechanisms. We then note that pain exhibits a characteristic form of judgement independence. On the assumption that pain processing is inferential, we argue that its judgement independence is indicative of modular (encapsulated) mechanisms. Indeed, we go further, suggesti…
Compositionality and constituent structure in the analogue mind
I argue that analogue mental representations possess a canonical decomposition into privileged constituents from which they compose. I motivate this suggestion, and rebut arguments to the contrary, through reflection on the approximate number system , whose representations are widely expected to have an analogue format. I then argue that arguments for the compositionality and constituent structure of these analogue representations generalize to o…
Teaching & Learning Guide for
The idea that perception is distinct from cognition is not just intuitive, it is central to countless debates in philosophy and psychology. For example, when researchers ask which properties can be visually represented or visually experienced? They are assuming that there is a difference between properties being represented in (visual) perception, and them merely being represented in post-perceptual thought and cognition. Indeed, many researchers…
Border Disputes
The distinction between perception and cognition frames countless debates in philosophy and cognitive science. But what, if anything, does this distinction actually amount to? In this introductory article, we summarize recent work on this question. We first briefly consider the possibility that a perception-cognition border should beeliminatedfrom our scientific ontology, and then introduce and critically examine five positive approaches to marki…
Beyond the icon
This paper refines a controversial proposal: That core systems belong to a perceptual kind, marked by the format of its representational outputs. Following Susan Carey, this proposal has been understood in terms of core representations having an iconic format, like certain paradigmatically perceptual outputs. I argue that they do not, but suggest that the proposal may be better formulated in terms of a broader analogue format type. Formulated in …
Mapping the Visual Icon
It is often claimed that pre-attentive vision has an 'iconic' format. This is seen to explain pre-attentive vision's characteristically high processing capacity and to make sense of an overlap in the mechanisms of early vision and mental imagery. But what does the iconicity of pre-attentive vision amount to? This paper considers two prominent ways of characterising pre-attentive visual icons and argues that neither is adequate: one approach rende…
Cognitive penetration and informational encapsulation
An Academic Venture in the Humanities
Mapping the Visual Icon
It is often claimed that pre-attentive vision has an 'iconic' format. This is seen to explain pre-attentive vision's characteristically high processing capacity and to make sense of an overlap in the mechanisms of early vision and mental imagery. But what does the iconicity of pre-attentive vision amount to? This paper considers two prominent ways of characterising pre-attentive visual icons and argues that neither is adequate: one approach rende…
Compositionality and constituent structure in the analogue mind
I argue that analogue mental representations possess a canonical decomposition into privileged constituents from which they compose. I motivate this suggestion, and rebut arguments to the contrary, through reflection on the approximate number system , whose representations are widely expected to have an analogue format. I then argue that arguments for the compositionality and constituent structure of these analogue representations generalize to o…
Border Disputes
The distinction between perception and cognition frames countless debates in philosophy and cognitive science. But what, if anything, does this distinction actually amount to? In this introductory article, we summarize recent work on this question. We first briefly consider the possibility that a perception-cognition border should beeliminatedfrom our scientific ontology, and then introduce and critically examine five positive approaches to marki…
An Academic Venture in the Humanities
Cognitive penetration and informational encapsulation
Beyond the icon
This paper refines a controversial proposal: That core systems belong to a perceptual kind, marked by the format of its representational outputs. Following Susan Carey, this proposal has been understood in terms of core representations having an iconic format, like certain paradigmatically perceptual outputs. I argue that they do not, but suggest that the proposal may be better formulated in terms of a broader analogue format type. Formulated in …
Mapping the Visual Icon
It is often claimed that pre-attentive vision has an 'iconic' format. This is seen to explain pre-attentive vision's characteristically high processing capacity and to make sense of an overlap in the mechanisms of early vision and mental imagery. But what does the iconicity of pre-attentive vision amount to? This paper considers two prominent ways of characterising pre-attentive visual icons and argues that neither is adequate: one approach rende…
Is pain modular
We suggest that pain processing has a modular architecture. We begin by motivating the (widely assumed but seldom defended) conjecture that pain processing comprises inferential mechanisms. We then note that pain exhibits a characteristic form of judgement independence. On the assumption that pain processing is inferential, we argue that its judgement independence is indicative of modular (encapsulated) mechanisms. Indeed, we go further, suggesti…
Compositionality and constituent structure in the analogue mind
I argue that analogue mental representations possess a canonical decomposition into privileged constituents from which they compose. I motivate this suggestion, and rebut arguments to the contrary, through reflection on the approximate number system , whose representations are widely expected to have an analogue format. I then argue that arguments for the compositionality and constituent structure of these analogue representations generalize to o…
Teaching & Learning Guide for
The idea that perception is distinct from cognition is not just intuitive, it is central to countless debates in philosophy and psychology. For example, when researchers ask which properties can be visually represented or visually experienced? They are assuming that there is a difference between properties being represented in (visual) perception, and them merely being represented in post-perceptual thought and cognition. Indeed, many researchers…
Border Disputes
The distinction between perception and cognition frames countless debates in philosophy and cognitive science. But what, if anything, does this distinction actually amount to? In this introductory article, we summarize recent work on this question. We first briefly consider the possibility that a perception-cognition border should beeliminatedfrom our scientific ontology, and then introduce and critically examine five positive approaches to marki…
Number adaptation
Number nativism 1
Number Nativism is the view that humans innately represent precise natural numbers. Despite a long and venerable history, it is often considered hopelessly out of touch with the empirical record. I argue that this is a mistake. After clarifying Number Nativism and distancing it from related conjectures, I distinguish three arguments which have been seen to refute the view. I argue that, while popular, two of these arguments miss the mark, and fai…
Seven reasons to (still) doubt the existence of number adaptation
Exploring the landscape of GenAI and education literature
The research landscape surrounding Generative Artificial Intelligence (GenAI) and education is rapidly expanding, characterised by a dynamic array of themes and sub‐themes. This paper aims to construct a comprehensive taxonomy that categorises the current literature on the integration of GenAI in educational settings. To do so, a systematic analysis was conducted first, which filtered and selected 30 pieces of literature. Within this literature, …
Ensemble size perception as a case study of the bounds of adaptation
Repulsive adaptation effects are widely assumed to obtain for all perceptually represented dimensions. However, the ubiquity of adaptation effects within perception remains untested. We examined ensemble size adaptation as a case study to probe whether adaptation occurs for all perceptually encoded properties. Across four experiments, we investigated whether observers adapt to average size and/or cumulative size of dot arrays. In Experiments 1a, …
EI Search
Many widely available search engines prioritise quick access to information, without acknowledging that knowledge is situated across different disciplines. EI Search is the first search engine to empower users’ curiosity about the nature of knowledge and boost epistemic insight into how disciplines work. Unlike conventional search tools that treat knowledge as a monolith, EI Search prompts users to explore complex questions through up to ten disc…
Can we “see” value? Spatiotopic “visual” adaptation to an imperceptible dimension
Oak National Academy’s Aila, Education AI Companies and the Anthropomorphising of AI
The integration of artificial intelligence (AI) in education is becoming increasingly prevalent, with educational AI companies employing diverse marketing strategies to engage educators. This paper investigates the extent to which these companies utilise anthropomorphic language on their websites as part of their communication, focusing on how such language shapes perceptions and expectations among educators. The research centres around Aila, an …
Psychology (12 works) · Cognitive psychology (10 works) · Cognitive science (8 works) · Computer Science (8 works) · Perception (8 works) · Philosophy (8 works) · Epistemology (7 works) · Cognition (5 works) · Visual perception and processing mechanisms (5 works) · Cognitive and developmental aspects of mathematical skills (4 works)