Jeanne E Arnold
Biographic Data
| ID | 3617679 |
|---|---|
| NAME | Jeanne E Arnold |
| GIVEN NAMES | Jeanne E |
| FAMILY NAME | Arnold |
| SIGNATURE | ARNOLD J E |
| AFFILIATIONS | University of California, Los Angeles |
| VERIFIED | No |
| TOTAL WORKS | 36 |
| TOTAL CITATIONS | 593 |
| AUTHOR COUNT | 35 |
| EDITOR COUNT | 1 |
| FIRST PUBLICATION YEAR | 1980 |
| LATEST PUBLICATION YEAR | 2019 |
| H-INDEX | 13 |
Antecedents to the Specialized Microdrill Industry on Santa Cruz Island, California
This report examines the development of lithic technology among the Chumash of California’s northern Channel Islands. By the middle of the first millennium A.D., the Island Chumash began to pursue specialized bead and drill making activities, leading to large-scale production of standardized artifact forms over much of the second millennium A.D. The region’s best provenanced collection of early ad hoc drills used for perforating Olivella shell be…
Bayesian 14C analysis, formation processes, and accumulation rates of the Prisoners Harbor shell midden and village complex, Santa Cruz Island, California
Entrenched Disbelief: Complex Hunter-Gatherers and the Case for Inclusive Cultural Evolutionary Thinking
Botanical Evidence of Paleodietary and Environmental Change: Drought on the Channel Islands, California
Fluctuations in climatic regimes and biodiversity through time are linked in complex ways to human behavior and socioeconomic processes. We use macrobotanical evidence from Chumash village sites on California's Channel Islands to investigate the relationship between late Holocene climatic perturbations and one region of the larger Chumash world. Carbonized plant remains provide evidence of the shifting availability of native plants during the Tra…
Explaining the monopoly in shell-bead production on the Channel Islands: Drilling experiments with four lithic raw materials
Where were the northern elephant seals? Holocene archaeology and biogeography of Mirounga angustirostris
Driven to the brink of extinction during the nineteenth century commercial fur and oil trade, northern elephant seal (NES, Mirounga angustirostris) populations now exceed 100 000 animals in the northeast Pacific from Alaska to Baja California. Because little is known about the biogeography and ecology of NES prior to the mid-nineteenth century, we synthesize and analyze the occurrence of NES remains in North American archaeological sites. Compari…
Technological Decision Making: Fused Shale Tool Production in California
Close examination of lithic raw material characteristics in conjunction with regional and diachronic artifact analyses is essential to our understanding of human technological decision making. I explore technological features and performance characteristics of a major lithic raw material type, fused shale, used by Chumash and Tongva toolmakers of southern California for making spear and arrow points. The primary source for this material was the G…
Detecting Apprentices and Innovators in the Archaeological Record: The Shell Bead-Making Industry of the Channel Islands
Gendered time use at home: An ethnographic examination of leisure time in middle‐class families
Home is often conceived as a refuge for busy working parents, but new findings indicate that relatively little leisure takes place there. We describe the indoor home leisure activities of middle‐class, dual‐earner parents, using ethnographic data from 32 Los Angeles‐area families of many ethnicities and real income levels. In our analysis, we rely most heavily on systematic scan sampling data in which the locations and activities of each family m…
Exploring Stó: Lō-Coast Salish Interaction and Identity in Ancient Houses and Settlements in the Fraser Valley, British Columbia
Social scientists recognize a complex and iterative relationship between the built environment and social identities. Here, we explore the extent to which household and settlement remains may be used as archaeological correlates of collective identities among the Stó:lō-Coast Salish peoples of the Fraser River Valley. Using data from six recently tested archaeological sites we begin with the household and explore expressions of identity at variou…
Calibrating Measures of Family Activities between Large- and Small-Scale Data Sets
Two studies of working families are combined to demonstrate a strategy for producing reliable estimates from the combination of self-reported (large N) and observational (small N) data. Both studies examine where and how dual-career families spend time at home. The 500 Family Study is sociological and uses self-reported time diary data from a national sample; the CELF study is anthropological and uses observational scan sampling data from a regio…
Credit Where Credit Is Due: The History of the Chumash Oceangoing Plank Canoe
Recent publications debate the origins of the Chumash plank canoe (tomol) of southern California. The timing of its appearance is of considerable scholarly interest because of its significant role in the evolution of sociopolitical complexity among the coastal Chumash, who were among the world's most complex hunter-gatherers. This paper closely considers: (a) what constitutes reliable empirical evidence for canoe making and maintenance; (b) the m…
Foundations of Chumash Complexity
This volume highlights the latest research on the foundations of sociopolitical complexity in coastal California. The populous maritime societies of southern California, particularly the groups known collectively as the Chumash, have gone largely unrecognized as prototypical complex hunter-gatherers, only recently beginning to emerge from the shadow of their more celebrated counterparts on the Northwest Coast of North America. While Northwest cul…
Negotiating the coasts: Status and the evolution of boat technology in California
For the Chumash of southern California, the plank canoe (tomol) played a crucial role in food acquisition, transport, exchange, and social integration, with significant consequences for status building and sociopolitical evolution. We present new data about plank canoe construction assemblages and new marine faunal data that help to pinpoint the date of the earliest appearance of the tomol, with the ultimate goal of situating this technological d…
The Archaeology of California
Catalysts to Complexity: Late Holocene Societies of the California Coast
When the Spanish colonized it in AD 1769, the California Coast was inhabited by speakers of no fewer than 16 distinct languages and an untold number of small, autonomous Native communities. These societies all survived by foraging, and ethnohistoric records show a wide range of adaptations emphasizing a host of different marine and terrestrial foods. Many groups exhibited signs of cultural complexity including sedentism, high population density, …
The Value of Pismo Clam Tube Beads in California: Experiments in Drilling
Shell beads have long been a topic of interest in North American Pacific Coast archaeology. Studies by Gifford (1947), Gibson (1975, 1976, 1987, 1992), King (1974, 1978, 1990), Macko (1984), Bennyhoff and Hughes (1987), Arnold (1992a), Arnold and Munns (1994), and Arnold and Graesch (2001) have established the temporal sensitivity of shell bead assemblages in California and explored their socioeconomic importance among several groups on the coast…
Mortuary Ambiguity: The Ventureño Chumash Case
The later evolution of Chumash polities in various subareas, including the Channel Islands, has attracted considerable scholarly attention. Most investigations on this topic during the past decade have focused on economic and political evolution through the use of residential data (e.g., Arnold 1992a; Arnold, ed. 2001; Kennett 1998). Earlier, and now again with the publication of Gamble et al. (2001), cemetery data are marshaled to examine cultur…
Prehistoric Marine Mammal Hunting on California's Northern Channel Islands
Prehistoric marine mammal hunting is of interest to archaeologists worldwide because these animals were exploited by a wide range of coastal societies. Sorting out the roles of particular groups of fauna in prehistoric economies requires detailed attention to the analysis of the entire faunal assemblage. Although marine mammals typically provided large quantities of fat and protein and were desirable prey, they were not always central to the diet…
Geophysical surveys of stratigraphically complex Island California sites: New Implications for Household Archaeology
Ground-penetrating radar and other geophysical techniques are known to produce useful data when deposits are crisply structured, as in the case of sub-surface masonry walls or large ditches. New studies of Californian coastal sites find the methods are effective in tracing the less sharp distinctions that define clay and sand house floors within these large and dense hunter-gatherer middens
Bigger Boats, Crowded Creekbanks: Environmental Stresses in Perspective
While new data about drought cycles are informative, patterns of ill health and violence and the origins of sociopolitical complexity in southern California are best understood through a broad consideration of multiple conditions and processes. These include various kinds of environmental and demographic conditions, changes in social and economic strategies, and changes in the organization of labor
Contexts of Cultural Change in Insular California
Archaeological and ethnohistorical researchers in California are reaping the rewards from a wealth of new information about precontact and early historical cultural diversity, technologies, and marine and terrestrial ecosystems. Our recent investigations into the later prehistory of the island groups of southern California have centered on processes of sociopolitical evolution, including the emergence of status differentiation, evidence for inten…
The archaeology of complex hunter-gatherers
Prehistoric Exchange Systems in North America. Timothy G. Baugh and Jonathon E
Early Hunter‐Gatherers of the California Coast. Jon M. Erlandson
Complex Hunter-Gatherer-Fishers of Prehistoric California: Chiefs, Specialists, and Maritime Adaptations of the Channel Islands
The Chumash of the Santa Barbara Channel region were among the most economically and politically complex hunter-gatherer cultures of the New World. In recent decades, rich ethnohistorical documents pertaining to Chumash culture were analyzed, thus providing an excellent foundation for understanding the simple chiefdom that was in place as explorers and missionaries arrived in the sixteenth to eighteenth centuries. Current archaeological research …
Transportation Innovation and Social Complexity among Maritime Hunter-Gatherer Societies
sAdvanced watercraft were in use at historic contact among a number of the most complex hunting-gathering societies of western North America, including the Chumash and the Nootkans. Though anthropologists often relegate technological innovations to very minor roles as stimuli toward social evolution and power inequities, archaeological analyses of long-term cultural change cannot afford to ignore the many social, symbolic, and practical implicati…
The archaeology of complex hunter-gatherers
Independent or Attached Specialization: The Organization of Shell Bead Production in California
Shell bead manufacturing on California's northern Channel Islands apparently played a critical role in the rise of a simple chiefdom and the operation of a lively regional exchange economy. Recent research has focused on expanding our understanding of the economic and sociopolitical context of this rich tradition of shell bead production and the means by which bead makers articulated with other specialists, elites, and consumers. Analyses suggest…
A Statistical Examination of Settlement Patterns at Tikal, Guatemala
The widely applied concentric zonation model for Classic period Maya centers, which specifies that high-ranking persons lived closer to the central civic-ceremonial precinct than low-ranking persons, is tested for the site of Tikal. Our method is to identify residential units from the Carr and Hazard (1961) Tikal maps and to compute labor investment costs of construction of residential units from variables derived exclusively from the cartographi…
Exploring Stó: Lō-Coast Salish Interaction and Identity in Ancient Houses and Settlements in the Fraser Valley, British Columbia
Social scientists recognize a complex and iterative relationship between the built environment and social identities. Here, we explore the extent to which household and settlement remains may be used as archaeological correlates of collective identities among the Stó:lō-Coast Salish peoples of the Fraser River Valley. Using data from six recently tested archaeological sites we begin with the household and explore expressions of identity at variou…
Negotiating the coasts: Status and the evolution of boat technology in California
For the Chumash of southern California, the plank canoe (tomol) played a crucial role in food acquisition, transport, exchange, and social integration, with significant consequences for status building and sociopolitical evolution. We present new data about plank canoe construction assemblages and new marine faunal data that help to pinpoint the date of the earliest appearance of the tomol, with the ultimate goal of situating this technological d…
Entrenched Disbelief: Complex Hunter-Gatherers and the Case for Inclusive Cultural Evolutionary Thinking
Gendered time use at home: An ethnographic examination of leisure time in middle‐class families
Home is often conceived as a refuge for busy working parents, but new findings indicate that relatively little leisure takes place there. We describe the indoor home leisure activities of middle‐class, dual‐earner parents, using ethnographic data from 32 Los Angeles‐area families of many ethnicities and real income levels. In our analysis, we rely most heavily on systematic scan sampling data in which the locations and activities of each family m…
Transformation of a regional economy: Sociopolitical evolution and the production of valuables in southern California
Among the most complex and specialized hunter-gatherer-fisher societies in the New World, the peoples of the Santa Barbara Channel region of California were considered exceptional by early explorers because of their intense interest in valuables, beads and trade. During the last several centuries before European contact, sedentary populations on the offshore islands and mainland coast participated in an intensive regional exchange network that em…
Detecting Apprentices and Innovators in the Archaeological Record: The Shell Bead-Making Industry of the Channel Islands
Calibrating Measures of Family Activities between Large- and Small-Scale Data Sets
Two studies of working families are combined to demonstrate a strategy for producing reliable estimates from the combination of self-reported (large N) and observational (small N) data. Both studies examine where and how dual-career families spend time at home. The 500 Family Study is sociological and uses self-reported time diary data from a national sample; the CELF study is anthropological and uses observational scan sampling data from a regio…
The Archaeology of California
Contexts of Cultural Change in Insular California
Archaeological and ethnohistorical researchers in California are reaping the rewards from a wealth of new information about precontact and early historical cultural diversity, technologies, and marine and terrestrial ecosystems. Our recent investigations into the later prehistory of the island groups of southern California have centered on processes of sociopolitical evolution, including the emergence of status differentiation, evidence for inten…
Credit Where Credit Is Due: The History of the Chumash Oceangoing Plank Canoe
Recent publications debate the origins of the Chumash plank canoe (tomol) of southern California. The timing of its appearance is of considerable scholarly interest because of its significant role in the evolution of sociopolitical complexity among the coastal Chumash, who were among the world's most complex hunter-gatherers. This paper closely considers: (a) what constitutes reliable empirical evidence for canoe making and maintenance; (b) the m…
Where were the northern elephant seals? Holocene archaeology and biogeography of Mirounga angustirostris
Driven to the brink of extinction during the nineteenth century commercial fur and oil trade, northern elephant seal (NES, Mirounga angustirostris) populations now exceed 100 000 animals in the northeast Pacific from Alaska to Baja California. Because little is known about the biogeography and ecology of NES prior to the mid-nineteenth century, we synthesize and analyze the occurrence of NES remains in North American archaeological sites. Compari…
Prehistoric Marine Mammal Hunting on California's Northern Channel Islands
Prehistoric marine mammal hunting is of interest to archaeologists worldwide because these animals were exploited by a wide range of coastal societies. Sorting out the roles of particular groups of fauna in prehistoric economies requires detailed attention to the analysis of the entire faunal assemblage. Although marine mammals typically provided large quantities of fat and protein and were desirable prey, they were not always central to the diet…
A Reexamination of Labor Investments at Tikal: Reply to Haviland, and Folan, Kintz, Fletcher and Hyde
There are two basic concerns expressed in the comments by Haviland and Folan et al.: the possible exclusion from consideration of specific residential unit areas and the method for calculating labor investments. Although all the issues expressed may be legitimate, most have been explicitly addressed in our original article (Arnold and Ford 1980), and none alter our conclusions
Bigger Boats, Crowded Creekbanks: Environmental Stresses in Perspective
While new data about drought cycles are informative, patterns of ill health and violence and the origins of sociopolitical complexity in southern California are best understood through a broad consideration of multiple conditions and processes. These include various kinds of environmental and demographic conditions, changes in social and economic strategies, and changes in the organization of labor
The Value of Pismo Clam Tube Beads in California: Experiments in Drilling
Shell beads have long been a topic of interest in North American Pacific Coast archaeology. Studies by Gifford (1947), Gibson (1975, 1976, 1987, 1992), King (1974, 1978, 1990), Macko (1984), Bennyhoff and Hughes (1987), Arnold (1992a), Arnold and Munns (1994), and Arnold and Graesch (2001) have established the temporal sensitivity of shell bead assemblages in California and explored their socioeconomic importance among several groups on the coast…
Botanical Evidence of Paleodietary and Environmental Change: Drought on the Channel Islands, California
Fluctuations in climatic regimes and biodiversity through time are linked in complex ways to human behavior and socioeconomic processes. We use macrobotanical evidence from Chumash village sites on California's Channel Islands to investigate the relationship between late Holocene climatic perturbations and one region of the larger Chumash world. Carbonized plant remains provide evidence of the shifting availability of native plants during the Tra…
Mortuary Ambiguity: The Ventureño Chumash Case
The later evolution of Chumash polities in various subareas, including the Channel Islands, has attracted considerable scholarly attention. Most investigations on this topic during the past decade have focused on economic and political evolution through the use of residential data (e.g., Arnold 1992a; Arnold, ed. 2001; Kennett 1998). Earlier, and now again with the publication of Gamble et al. (2001), cemetery data are marshaled to examine cultur…
Geophysical surveys of stratigraphically complex Island California sites: New Implications for Household Archaeology
Ground-penetrating radar and other geophysical techniques are known to produce useful data when deposits are crisply structured, as in the case of sub-surface masonry walls or large ditches. New studies of Californian coastal sites find the methods are effective in tracing the less sharp distinctions that define clay and sand house floors within these large and dense hunter-gatherer middens
The Santa Barbara Channel Islands Bladelet Industry
There is a massive bladelet production industry coming to light on the northern Santa Barbara Channel Islands of California. This industry operated ca. A.D. 900-1785 and underwent several culturally and technologically significant changes through its prehistory. Density of bladelet cores, manufacturing detritus, and bladelets found within village middens and on surfaces of chert quarry sites appears to exceed in volume finds at any other known mi…
Technological Decision Making: Fused Shale Tool Production in California
Close examination of lithic raw material characteristics in conjunction with regional and diachronic artifact analyses is essential to our understanding of human technological decision making. I explore technological features and performance characteristics of a major lithic raw material type, fused shale, used by Chumash and Tongva toolmakers of southern California for making spear and arrow points. The primary source for this material was the G…
A Statistical Examination of Settlement Patterns at Tikal, Guatemala
The widely applied concentric zonation model for Classic period Maya centers, which specifies that high-ranking persons lived closer to the central civic-ceremonial precinct than low-ranking persons, is tested for the site of Tikal. Our method is to identify residential units from the Carr and Hazard (1961) Tikal maps and to compute labor investment costs of construction of residential units from variables derived exclusively from the cartographi…
A Reexamination of Labor Investments at Tikal: Reply to Haviland, and Folan, Kintz, Fletcher and Hyde
There are two basic concerns expressed in the comments by Haviland and Folan et al.: the possible exclusion from consideration of specific residential unit areas and the method for calculating labor investments. Although all the issues expressed may be legitimate, most have been explicitly addressed in our original article (Arnold and Ford 1980), and none alter our conclusions
Archaeological dating: Retracing time
The Santa Barbara Channel Islands Bladelet Industry
There is a massive bladelet production industry coming to light on the northern Santa Barbara Channel Islands of California. This industry operated ca. A.D. 900-1785 and underwent several culturally and technologically significant changes through its prehistory. Density of bladelet cores, manufacturing detritus, and bladelets found within village middens and on surfaces of chert quarry sites appears to exceed in volume finds at any other known mi…
Transformation of a regional economy: Sociopolitical evolution and the production of valuables in southern California
Among the most complex and specialized hunter-gatherer-fisher societies in the New World, the peoples of the Santa Barbara Channel region of California were considered exceptional by early explorers because of their intense interest in valuables, beads and trade. During the last several centuries before European contact, sedentary populations on the offshore islands and mainland coast participated in an intensive regional exchange network that em…
Complex Hunter-Gatherer-Fishers of Prehistoric California: Chiefs, Specialists, and Maritime Adaptations of the Channel Islands
The Chumash of the Santa Barbara Channel region were among the most economically and politically complex hunter-gatherer cultures of the New World. In recent decades, rich ethnohistorical documents pertaining to Chumash culture were analyzed, thus providing an excellent foundation for understanding the simple chiefdom that was in place as explorers and missionaries arrived in the sixteenth to eighteenth centuries. Current archaeological research …
Measurement of Significant Marine Paleotemperature Variation Using Black Abalone Shells from Prehistoric Middens
The archaeological record from the last millennium in southern California indicates that a period of significant cultural change was associated with a reported marine paleoenvironmental disruption ca. 1150-1250 A.D. A lengthy warm-water anomaly may have in part precipitated more complex sociopolitical and economic responses. We develop independent verification of the perturbation (originally deduced from sediment core data) using archaeological d…
Labor and the Rise of Complex Hunter-Gatherers
Independent or Attached Specialization: The Organization of Shell Bead Production in California
Shell bead manufacturing on California's northern Channel Islands apparently played a critical role in the rise of a simple chiefdom and the operation of a lively regional exchange economy. Recent research has focused on expanding our understanding of the economic and sociopolitical context of this rich tradition of shell bead production and the means by which bead makers articulated with other specialists, elites, and consumers. Analyses suggest…
Before the Wilderness: Environmental Management by Native Californians
Early Hunter‐Gatherers of the California Coast. Jon M. Erlandson
Transportation Innovation and Social Complexity among Maritime Hunter-Gatherer Societies
sAdvanced watercraft were in use at historic contact among a number of the most complex hunting-gathering societies of western North America, including the Chumash and the Nootkans. Though anthropologists often relegate technological innovations to very minor roles as stimuli toward social evolution and power inequities, archaeological analyses of long-term cultural change cannot afford to ignore the many social, symbolic, and practical implicati…
The archaeology of complex hunter-gatherers
Prehistoric Exchange Systems in North America. Timothy G. Baugh and Jonathon E
Geophysical surveys of stratigraphically complex Island California sites: New Implications for Household Archaeology
Ground-penetrating radar and other geophysical techniques are known to produce useful data when deposits are crisply structured, as in the case of sub-surface masonry walls or large ditches. New studies of Californian coastal sites find the methods are effective in tracing the less sharp distinctions that define clay and sand house floors within these large and dense hunter-gatherer middens
Bigger Boats, Crowded Creekbanks: Environmental Stresses in Perspective
While new data about drought cycles are informative, patterns of ill health and violence and the origins of sociopolitical complexity in southern California are best understood through a broad consideration of multiple conditions and processes. These include various kinds of environmental and demographic conditions, changes in social and economic strategies, and changes in the organization of labor
Contexts of Cultural Change in Insular California
Archaeological and ethnohistorical researchers in California are reaping the rewards from a wealth of new information about precontact and early historical cultural diversity, technologies, and marine and terrestrial ecosystems. Our recent investigations into the later prehistory of the island groups of southern California have centered on processes of sociopolitical evolution, including the emergence of status differentiation, evidence for inten…
Prehistoric Marine Mammal Hunting on California's Northern Channel Islands
Prehistoric marine mammal hunting is of interest to archaeologists worldwide because these animals were exploited by a wide range of coastal societies. Sorting out the roles of particular groups of fauna in prehistoric economies requires detailed attention to the analysis of the entire faunal assemblage. Although marine mammals typically provided large quantities of fat and protein and were desirable prey, they were not always central to the diet…
The Value of Pismo Clam Tube Beads in California: Experiments in Drilling
Shell beads have long been a topic of interest in North American Pacific Coast archaeology. Studies by Gifford (1947), Gibson (1975, 1976, 1987, 1992), King (1974, 1978, 1990), Macko (1984), Bennyhoff and Hughes (1987), Arnold (1992a), Arnold and Munns (1994), and Arnold and Graesch (2001) have established the temporal sensitivity of shell bead assemblages in California and explored their socioeconomic importance among several groups on the coast…
Mortuary Ambiguity: The Ventureño Chumash Case
The later evolution of Chumash polities in various subareas, including the Channel Islands, has attracted considerable scholarly attention. Most investigations on this topic during the past decade have focused on economic and political evolution through the use of residential data (e.g., Arnold 1992a; Arnold, ed. 2001; Kennett 1998). Earlier, and now again with the publication of Gamble et al. (2001), cemetery data are marshaled to examine cultur…
Catalysts to Complexity: Late Holocene Societies of the California Coast
When the Spanish colonized it in AD 1769, the California Coast was inhabited by speakers of no fewer than 16 distinct languages and an untold number of small, autonomous Native communities. These societies all survived by foraging, and ethnohistoric records show a wide range of adaptations emphasizing a host of different marine and terrestrial foods. Many groups exhibited signs of cultural complexity including sedentism, high population density, …
The Archaeology of California
Foundations of Chumash Complexity
This volume highlights the latest research on the foundations of sociopolitical complexity in coastal California. The populous maritime societies of southern California, particularly the groups known collectively as the Chumash, have gone largely unrecognized as prototypical complex hunter-gatherers, only recently beginning to emerge from the shadow of their more celebrated counterparts on the Northwest Coast of North America. While Northwest cul…
Negotiating the coasts: Status and the evolution of boat technology in California
For the Chumash of southern California, the plank canoe (tomol) played a crucial role in food acquisition, transport, exchange, and social integration, with significant consequences for status building and sociopolitical evolution. We present new data about plank canoe construction assemblages and new marine faunal data that help to pinpoint the date of the earliest appearance of the tomol, with the ultimate goal of situating this technological d…
Calibrating Measures of Family Activities between Large- and Small-Scale Data Sets
Two studies of working families are combined to demonstrate a strategy for producing reliable estimates from the combination of self-reported (large N) and observational (small N) data. Both studies examine where and how dual-career families spend time at home. The 500 Family Study is sociological and uses self-reported time diary data from a national sample; the CELF study is anthropological and uses observational scan sampling data from a regio…
Archaeology (27 works) · Archaeology and ancient environmental studies (24 works) · Geography (22 works) · History (19 works) · History (13 works) · Sociology (11 works) · Historical and Cultural Archaeology Studies (10 works) · Pleistocene-Era Hominins and Archaeology (10 works) · Biology (9 works) · Computer Science (9 works)