J Schnittker
Biographic Data
| ID | 41807 |
|---|---|
| NAME | J Schnittker |
| GIVEN NAMES | J |
| FAMILY NAME | Schnittker |
| SIGNATURE | SCHNITTKER J |
| AFFILIATIONS | University of Pennsylvania |
| ORCID | 0000-0002-3128-6318 |
| VERIFIED | Yes |
| TOTAL WORKS | 67 |
| TOTAL CITATIONS | 1102 |
| AUTHOR COUNT | 67 |
| EDITOR COUNT | 0 |
| FIRST PUBLICATION YEAR | 2000 |
| LATEST PUBLICATION YEAR | 2026 |
| H-INDEX | 18 |
Political and Organizational Influences in the Side Effects of FDA Approved Drugs
No Atheists in Foxholes or Ideologues in Hospitals: The Roles of System Justification, Politics, and Personal Experience in Shaping Health Beliefs
Public beliefs about the causes of good and bad health are well studied but inadequately theorized. Using nationally representative survey data and a large sample (N = 6,617), this study explores the potentially conflicting roles of system justification, politics, and personal experience. The study finds evidence for system justification, at least a contingent version that allows for self-serving biases. Multivariate regression models reveal that…
Rebuilding Lives: The Intersection of Reintegration and Psychological Distress after Incarceration for Genocide
This article explores the reentry and reintegration of Rwandans who were incarcerated for genocide. Previous research indicates that these individuals are experiencing psychological distress, and we analyze the determinants of this distress in this study. Specifically, we assess three waves of longitudinal data following 185 Rwandans whom we interviewed before their release and approximately four months and one year afterward. We find that psycho…
Head Injuries and the Gender Gap in Anxiety and Depression Symptoms
ObjectivesUsing 2017-2022 Midlife in the United States Biomarker Project data, this study explores the contribution of head injuries to the gender gap in depression and anxiety symptoms.MethodsLinear regression models were used to estimate generation-specific gender differences symptoms. The contribution of head injuries to these differences was explored. In addition, sources of potential confounding were examined.ResultsAmong women, a lifetime h…
Trusting relationships in prison and well-being after release
The Sociology of Mental Health and the Twenty-First-Century Mental Health Crisis
In this article, I address the current mental health crisis in the United States, consisting of a rapid rise in anxiety and depression among millennials and growing deaths of despair among non-college middle-aged adults. I argue that the twin crises have much in common, as different as they might appear. Both are crises of subjective interpretation and meaning as much as objective circumstance and opportunity. Yet to date they have been interpret…
Guilt and depression in the aftermath of the 1994 genocide in Rwanda
After the 1994 genocide in Rwanda, hundreds of thousands of people were convicted and sentenced for genocide‐related crimes. Many are now being released from prisons and community service camps. This study evaluates the mental health of 168 Rwandans nearing release and at two points after, focusing on the relative significance of the circumstances surrounding their crime, the procedures used in their conviction, the characteristics of their sente…
Childhood mental health and educational attainment: Within-family associations in a late 20th Century U.S. birth cohort
What makes sexual violence different? Comparing the effects of sexual and non-sexual violence on psychological distress
Although drawing an equivalence between sexual and non-sexual violence has been critical to the feminist analysis of rape, the distinction between the two has not been the subject of much empirical research. Using the longitudinal component of the National Comorbidity Survey this study compares the long-term associations of sexual and non-sexual physical violence with psychological distress. In addition, it explores associations of sexual and phy…
The contingent effect of incarceration on state health outcomes
Improving the health of prisoners can improve the health of the communities to which they return. We consider these results in light of the relative quality of detection and treatment available to underserved populations within and outside prisons
The role of pharmaceutical side-effects in depression among immigrants
Exposure to medications with depression or suicidality as a side-effect helped explain part of the relative mental health advantage of foreign-born residents, as well as the diminishing advantage associated with time in the US and with acculturation
Allan V. Horwitz, DSM: A History of Psychiatry's Bible
An account of the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM) can be approached in a variety of way, but in DSM: A History of Psychiatry’s Bible Allan Horwitz takes a pleasingly ecumenical approach, addressing the broad public sphere in which the DSM resides and casting its success in terms of the many interests it serves well. He reviews, in detail, the social movements that have advocated for and against diagnoses—including some…
The Nexus of Physical and Psychological Pain: Consequences for Mortality and Implications for Medical Sociology
Although physical pain lies at the intersection of biology and social conditions, a sociology of pain is still in its infancy. We seek to show how physical and psychological pain are jointly parts of a common expression of despair, particularly in relation to mortality. Using the 2002-2014 National Health Interview Survey Linked Mortality Files (N = 228,098), we explore sociodemographic differences in the intersection of physical and psychologica…
Utilization of Medications With Cognitive Impairment Side Effects and the Implications for Older Adults’ Cognitive Function
Objectives: Many medications have cognitive impairment, memory loss, amnesia, or dementia as side effects ("cognitive side effects" hereafter), but little is known about trends in the prevalence of these medications or their implications for population-level cognitive impairment. Method: We use data from the National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (1999-2016) to describe trends in the use of medications with cognitive side effects among …
In-utero determinants of adult depression: Evidence From the 1918 Flu Pandemic
Social scientists have dealt only glancing with potential in-utero determinants of mental health. This study looks at the enduring consequences of gestational exposure to the 1918 flu pandemic for adult depression. It does so using data collected in the first wave of the National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (1971-1975), corresponding to when those exposed in-utero were in their early to mid-50s. The results indicate very strong effect…
Neither mad nor bad? The classification of antisocial personality disorder among formerly incarcerated adults
Pharmaceutical Side Effects and Mental Health Paradoxes among Racial-Ethnic Minorities
Sociologists have long struggled to explain the minority mental health paradox: that racial-ethnic minorities often report better mental health than non-Hispanic whites despite social environments that seem less conducive to well-being. Using data from the 2008-2013 Medical Expenditure Panel Survey (MEPS), this study provides a partial explanation for the paradox rooted in a very different disparity. Evidence from MEPS indicates that non-Hispanic…
Sexual Violence and Major Depression among Women: Evidence for Reciprocal Relationships
Using two waves of the National Comorbidity Survey, this study examines the relationship between sexual violence and major depression among women, focusing on rape. It uncovers evidence for two-way relationships that, among other things, shed light on who is at risk of sexual assault. Although rape increases the risk of developing major depression in a prospective fashion, depressed women are also at a higher risk of being raped. These pathways i…
Religion, social integration, and depression in Europe: Evidence from the European Social Survey
The Effect of Timing of Incarceration on Mental Health: Evidence from a Natural Experiment
There is growing evidence that incarceration is associated with adverse health outcomes, but little is known about how circumstances surrounding incarceration relate to health. In the present study, we estimate the effect of timing of incarceration on mental health using panel data constructed from the Danish population registry. We exploit a 1994 criminal justice reform as a natural experiment that created exogenous variation in the age at which…
Season of birth and depression in adulthood: Revisiting historical forerunner evidence for in-utero effects
Evidence showing a relationship between season of birth and adult well-being is long-standing, but is now largely overlooked or dismissed. In light of increasingly compelling evidence for the effects of in-utero conditions on adult health, however, it is instructive to revisit the relationship, with an eye toward resolving the reasons for skepticism. This study uses data from the first National Health and Nutritional Examination Survey to examine…
Scars: The Long-term Effects of Combat Exposure on Health
Although the effects of combat exposure on mental health receive a good deal of attention, less attention has been directed to the long-term effects of combat exposure on physical health, apart from combat injuries. Using the 2010 National Survey of Veterans, the author evaluates the long-term effects of combat generally, as well as more specific dimensions of combat experience, including exposure to the dead and wounded. The results indicate tha…
The Growth, Scope, and Spatial Distribution of People With Felony Records in the United States, 1948–2010
The steep rise in U.S. criminal punishment in recent decades has spurred scholarship on the collateral consequences of imprisonment for individuals, families, and communities. Several excellent studies have estimated the number of people who have been incarcerated and the collateral consequences they face, but far less is known about the size and scope of the total U.S. population with felony convictions beyond prison walls, including those who s…
Diagnostic System: Why the Classification of Psychiatric Disorders Is Necessary, Difficult, and Never Settled
Mental illness is many things at once: It is a natural phenomenon that is also shaped by society and culture. It is biological but also behavioral and social. Mental illness is a problem of both the brain and the mind, and this ambiguity presents a challenge for those who seek to accurately classify psychiatric disorders. The leading resource we have for doing so is the American Psychiatric Association's Diagnostic and Statistical Manual, but no …
Orange Is Still Pink: Mental Illness, Gender Roles, and Physical Victimization in Prisons
Although research has established a very strong relationship between the presence of a psychiatric disorder and victimization in prisons, some gaps remain in our understanding. This study considers the importance of gender differences in this relationship. Estimates based on the 2004 Survey of Inmates in State and Federal Correctional Facilities show that psychiatric disorders have a stronger relationship with victimization among male inmates tha…
Enduring Stigma: The Long-Term Effects of Incarceration on Health
Although incarceration rates have risen sharply since the 1970s, medical sociology has largely neglected the health effects of imprisonment. Incarceration might have powerful effects on health, especially if it instills stigma, and it could provide sociologists with another mechanism for understanding health disparities. This study identifies some of incarceration's direct and indirect effects and rigorously tests them using the National Longitud…
Despair by Association? The Mental Health of Mothers with Children by Recently Incarcerated Fathers
A burgeoning literature considers the consequences of mass imprisonment for the well-being of adult men and-albeit to a lesser degree-their children. Yet virtually no quantitative research considers the consequences of mass imprisonment for the well-being of the women who are the link between (former) prisoners and their children. This article extends research on the collateral consequences of mass imprisonment by considering the association betw…
The Social Psychology of Health Disparities
In recent years, scholars from a variety of disciplines have turned to the potential psychosocial determinants of health in pursuit of an explanation for socioeconomic and racial/ethnic disparities. This review discusses the literature on psychosocial factors and mental and physical health, focusing on the roles of subjective status, self/identity, and perceived discrimination. We argue that current research may have obscured important social psy…
Out and Down: Incarceration and Psychiatric Disorders
Psychiatric disorders are unusually prevalent among current and former inmates, but it is not known what this relationship reflects. A putative causal relationship is contaminated by assorted influences, including childhood disadvantage, the early onset of most disorders, and the criminalization of substance use. Using the National Comorbidity Survey Replication ( N = 5692), we examine the relationship between incarceration and psychiatric disord…
The Growth, Scope, and Spatial Distribution of People With Felony Records in the United States, 1948–2010
The steep rise in U.S. criminal punishment in recent decades has spurred scholarship on the collateral consequences of imprisonment for individuals, families, and communities. Several excellent studies have estimated the number of people who have been incarcerated and the collateral consequences they face, but far less is known about the size and scope of the total U.S. population with felony convictions beyond prison walls, including those who s…
Incarceration and the Health of the African American Community
This article reviews evidence linking incarceration and health, with a particular focus on African Americans, who are disproportionately affected by the incarceration system. Although inmates generally suffer from worse health than comparable, non-institutionalized adults, this comparison is not uniformly the case, and some of the strongest negative effects of incarceration emerge after release, suggesting that the struggles of reintegration into…
Who Are Feminists and What Do They Believe? The Role of Generations
Using the 1996 General Social Survey, the antecedents of feminist self-identification and their link to gender-related social attitudes are explored. Although most sociodemographic variables show either no relationship or a weak relationship with feminist self-identification, there are strong differences across cohorts. Males and females who were young adults during the "second wave " of feminism (birth years 1936 to 1955) are more likely to iden…
As Fathers and Felons: Explaining the Effects of Current and Recent Incarceration on Major Depression
Dramatic increases in the American imprisonment rate since the mid-1970s have important implications for the life chances of minority men with low educational attainment, including for their health. Although a large literature has considered the collateral consequences of incarceration for a variety of outcomes, studies concerned with health have several limitations: Most focus exclusively on physical health; those concerned with mental health on…
Working More and Feeling Better: Women's Health, Employment, and Family Life, 1974-2004
Women have long reported worse self-rated health than men. This difference, however, may be changing. Rising educational attainment and labor force participation over the last two decades may have improved women's health, yet some have speculated that such benefits are increasingly threatened by a variety of other important changes, including growing difficulty balancing work and family. This article explores trends in women's health, employment,…
Those They Leave Behind: Paternal Incarceration and Maternal Instrumental Support
As the American imprisonment rate has risen, researchers have become increasingly concerned about the implications of mass imprisonment for family life. The authors extend this research by examining how paternal incarceration is linked to perceived instrumental support among the mothers of inmates' children. Results from the Fragile Families and Child Wellbeing Study (N = 4,132) suggest that recent, but not current, paternal incarceration is inde…
Education and the Changing Shape of the Income Gradient in Health
Research on the social determinants of health has increasingly sought to understand the relative importance of different features of socioeconomic status. Much of the ensuing debate has wavered between education and income, with recent research leaning increasingly toward income. This research has not, however, consistently explored interactions between different features of socioeconomic status and, in trying to understand the independent effect…
An uncertain revolution: Why the rise of a genetic model of mental illness has not increased tolerance
When is Faith Enough? The Effects of Religious Involvement on Depression
Although most scholars find that religious involvement is negatively related to depression, questions still remain regarding how individuals benefit from such involvement and evidence from nationally representative samples is rare. In this paper, I expand upon previous research by considering three types of general religious involvement (attendance at religious services, religious salience, and spiritual help-seeking) and three types of effects (…
Acculturation in Context: The Self-Esteem of Chinese Immigrants
Despite the resurgence of immigration in the United States and a renewed scholarly interest in the effects of social context, social psychologists have not sufficiently explored the joint relationships between acculturation and neighborhood ethnic composition as influences on immigrants'self-esteem. Using a sample of adult Chinese immigrants, I examine the effects of English language use, Chinese cultural participation, and neighborhood Chinese c…
The relationship between incarceration and premature adult mortality: Gender specific evidence
Social Science Methods for Twins Data: Integrating Causality, Endowments, and Heritability
Twins have been extensively used in economics, sociology, and behavioral genetics to investigate the role of genetic endowments on a broad range of social, demographic, and economic outcomes. However, the focus in these literatures has been distinct.: The economic literature has been primarily concerned with the need to control for unobserved endowments--including as an important subset, genetic endowments--in analyses that attempt to establish t…
Look (Closely) at All the Lonely People: Age and the Social Psychology of Social Support
Improvements in perceived support appear to be premised on psychological processes rather than role changes: They occur despite changes in the environment and independent of how individuals make choices among friends. Indeed, this process is so powerful that loneliness declines even among those who are living alone, have no children, and report no confidants
Happiness and Success: Genes, Families, and the Psychological Effects of Socioeconomic Position and Social Support
Although there is considerable evidence linking success -- including wealth, marriage, and friendships -- to happiness, this relationship might not reflect, as is often assumed, the effects of the proximate environment on well-being. Such an interpretation is contravened by evidence that both happiness and the environment are influenced by genetic factors and family upbringing. Using the National Survey of Midlife Development in the United States…
Social Distance in the Clinical Encounter: Interactional and Sociodemographic Foundations for Mistrust in Physicians
Although many observers have drawn attention to the low levels of trust in physicians among members of racial/ethnic minorities and those of lower socioeconomic status, the reasons for this mistrust are not well understood. Using a social distance perspective and a large, nationally representative data set, I find that blacks and Hispanics are less trusting of their personal physicians than are whites and that education and income both increase p…
The Psychological Dimensions and the Social Consequences of Incarceration
This article explores the psychological costs of incarceration, with a particular focus on how psychological factors are related to the social and economic difficulties of reentry. Using descriptive information from a nationally representative survey, this study reveals considerable anxiety, fear, and uncertainty among former inmates. The evidence also reveals that psychiatric disorders are, in some cases, even more disabling among former inmates…
Chronic illness and depressive symptoms in late life
Misgivings of Medicine: African Americans' Skepticism of Psychiatric Medication
Research has consistently documented black-white differences in rates of voluntary psychiatric treatment that cannot be reduced entirely to differences in either need or access. A variety of explanations have been offered for the gap that remains, but the empirical testing of alternative propositions has thus far been minimal. Using the 1998 General Social Survey's Pressing Issues in Health and Medical Care module (n = 1,387), I find consistent a…
A Mark of Disgrace or a Badge of Honor: Subjective Status among Former Inmates
Using the National Comorbidity Survey Replication, this study explores the effects of incarceration on the subjective status of men, based on the MacArthur Scale of Subjective Social Status (or the “ladder”). The study makes several crucial distinctions. First, it distinguishes subjective status in one's community and subjective status in the United States generally, thereby exploring differences between the local and global meanings of incarcera…
Are African Americans Really Less Willing to Use Health Care
Racial and ethnic disparities in medical treatment are usually held to reflect an implicit physician bias and/or patient predispositions and expectations. Although evidence favoring either side has been slim, predispositions have played an increasingly prominent role in the debate. Indeed, even opposing sides seem to take for granted that African Americans are more averse to using health care and more skeptical of its effectiveness. In this artic…
Cognitive abilities and self-rated health: Is there a relationship? Is it growing? Does it explain disparities
Nature, Nurture, Neither, Nor: Black-White Differences in Beliefs about the Causes and Appropriate Treatment of Mental Illness
We use the 1996 General Social Survey (GSS) to explore racial differences in perceptions of the etiology and treatment of mental illness. We find that African Americans are more likely than whites to reject the idea that mental illnesses are caused by either genetics or an unhealthy family upbringing but this effect does not extend to other biological or environmental explanations of psychological disorders. We propose that blacks may be more ske…
Gender and Reactions to Psychological Problems: An Examination of Social Tolerance and Perceived Dangerousness
Jason Schnittker, Gender and Reactions to Psychological Problems: An Examination of Social Tolerance and Perceived Dangerousness, Journal of Health and Social Behavior, Vol. 41, No. 2 (Jun., 2000), pp. 224-240
When is Faith Enough? The Effects of Religious Involvement on Depression
Although most scholars find that religious involvement is negatively related to depression, questions still remain regarding how individuals benefit from such involvement and evidence from nationally representative samples is rare. In this paper, I expand upon previous research by considering three types of general religious involvement (attendance at religious services, religious salience, and spiritual help-seeking) and three types of effects (…
The Blackwell Companion to Sociology
Acculturation in Context: The Self-Esteem of Chinese Immigrants
Despite the resurgence of immigration in the United States and a renewed scholarly interest in the effects of social context, social psychologists have not sufficiently explored the joint relationships between acculturation and neighborhood ethnic composition as influences on immigrants'self-esteem. Using a sample of adult Chinese immigrants, I examine the effects of English language use, Chinese cultural participation, and neighborhood Chinese c…
Who Are Feminists and What Do They Believe? The Role of Generations
Using the 1996 General Social Survey, the antecedents of feminist self-identification and their link to gender-related social attitudes are explored. Although most sociodemographic variables show either no relationship or a weak relationship with feminist self-identification, there are strong differences across cohorts. Males and females who were young adults during the "second wave " of feminism (birth years 1936 to 1955) are more likely to iden…
Misgivings of Medicine: African Americans' Skepticism of Psychiatric Medication
Research has consistently documented black-white differences in rates of voluntary psychiatric treatment that cannot be reduced entirely to differences in either need or access. A variety of explanations have been offered for the gap that remains, but the empirical testing of alternative propositions has thus far been minimal. Using the 1998 General Social Survey's Pressing Issues in Health and Medical Care module (n = 1,387), I find consistent a…
Product Review: Stories in the Time of Cholera: Racial Profiling During a Medical Nightmare
Social Distance in the Clinical Encounter: Interactional and Sociodemographic Foundations for Mistrust in Physicians
Although many observers have drawn attention to the low levels of trust in physicians among members of racial/ethnic minorities and those of lower socioeconomic status, the reasons for this mistrust are not well understood. Using a social distance perspective and a large, nationally representative data set, I find that blacks and Hispanics are less trusting of their personal physicians than are whites and that education and income both increase p…
Psychological factors as mechanisms for socioeconomic disparities in health: A critical appraisal of four common factors
Social epidemiology has increasingly looked to psychological factors as both risk factors for physical health and mechanisms behind disparities. Yet, there has been little resolution to the question of whether psychological factors explain disparities, and skepticism has begun to mount about whether psychological factors are causally linked to health. Furthermore, some have questioned the nature of the relationship: most research suggests that ps…
Education and the Changing Shape of the Income Gradient in Health
Research on the social determinants of health has increasingly sought to understand the relative importance of different features of socioeconomic status. Much of the ensuing debate has wavered between education and income, with recent research leaning increasingly toward income. This research has not, however, consistently explored interactions between different features of socioeconomic status and, in trying to understand the independent effect…
When Mental Health Becomes Health: Age and the Shifting Meaning of Self‐Evaluations of General Health
Do self‐evaluations of general health change as individuals age? Although several perspectives point to age‐related shifts, few researchers have compared them. For this article, several competing hypotheses were tested using a large, nationally representative, and longitudinal data set. The results suggest two trends. First, the correspondence between functional limitations and self‐rated health declines, especially after age 50. Similarly, the c…
Chronic illness and depressive symptoms in late life
Are African Americans Really Less Willing to Use Health Care
Racial and ethnic disparities in medical treatment are usually held to reflect an implicit physician bias and/or patient predispositions and expectations. Although evidence favoring either side has been slim, predispositions have played an increasingly prominent role in the debate. Indeed, even opposing sides seem to take for granted that African Americans are more averse to using health care and more skeptical of its effectiveness. In this artic…
The Social Psychology of Health Disparities
In recent years, scholars from a variety of disciplines have turned to the potential psychosocial determinants of health in pursuit of an explanation for socioeconomic and racial/ethnic disparities. This review discusses the literature on psychosocial factors and mental and physical health, focusing on the roles of subjective status, self/identity, and perceived discrimination. We argue that current research may have obscured important social psy…
Cognitive abilities and self-rated health: Is there a relationship? Is it growing? Does it explain disparities
Look (Closely) at All the Lonely People: Age and the Social Psychology of Social Support
Improvements in perceived support appear to be premised on psychological processes rather than role changes: They occur despite changes in the environment and independent of how individuals make choices among friends. Indeed, this process is so powerful that loneliness declines even among those who are living alone, have no children, and report no confidants
Working More and Feeling Better: Women's Health, Employment, and Family Life, 1974-2004
Women have long reported worse self-rated health than men. This difference, however, may be changing. Rising educational attainment and labor force participation over the last two decades may have improved women's health, yet some have speculated that such benefits are increasingly threatened by a variety of other important changes, including growing difficulty balancing work and family. This article explores trends in women's health, employment,…
Enduring Stigma: The Long-Term Effects of Incarceration on Health
Although incarceration rates have risen sharply since the 1970s, medical sociology has largely neglected the health effects of imprisonment. Incarceration might have powerful effects on health, especially if it instills stigma, and it could provide sociologists with another mechanism for understanding health disparities. This study identifies some of incarceration's direct and indirect effects and rigorously tests them using the National Longitud…
Diagnosing Our National Disease: Trends in Income and Happiness, 1973 to 2004
An important paradox of the happiness literature is the apparent disconnect between economic growth and happiness, referred to as the “Easterlin Paradox.” Although real income has grown over the last thirty years, happiness has stagnated or perhaps even declined. There are a variety of explanations for this. Some emphasize psychological factors, such as relative deprivation or growing financial dissatisfaction, whereas others emphasize the behavi…
An uncertain revolution: Why the rise of a genetic model of mental illness has not increased tolerance
Happiness and Success: Genes, Families, and the Psychological Effects of Socioeconomic Position and Social Support
Although there is considerable evidence linking success -- including wealth, marriage, and friendships -- to happiness, this relationship might not reflect, as is often assumed, the effects of the proximate environment on well-being. Such an interpretation is contravened by evidence that both happiness and the environment are influenced by genetic factors and family upbringing. Using the National Survey of Midlife Development in the United States…
The Double Helix and Double-Edged Sword: How the Public Thinks about Genes
The implications of genetic explanations for behavioral traits such as violence and the public’s interpretations of them. Virtual Mentor is a monthly bioethics journal published by the American Medical Association
Mirage of Health in the Era of Biomedicalization: Evaluating Change in the Threshold of Illness, 1972-1996
Pooling National Health Interview Survey 1972–1996 data, this study examines whether the threshold of health is rising, such that individuals are more likely to report poor health based on weaker symptoms. The results suggest that those with some form of disability report poor health more often today than they did in the past. Yet the results also reveal a pattern more complex than a simple rising-threshold story. For one, the results suggest a n…
Between two extremes: A response to Lichtenberg and Lexchin
Psychology (54 works) · Psychiatry (35 works) · Medicine (31 works) · Health disparities and outcomes (23 works) · Sociology (22 works) · Political science (21 works) · Social Psychology (20 works) · Mental health (17 works) · Criminology (16 works) · Environmental health (16 works)