William E Hammitt
Biographic Data
| ID | 5816044 |
|---|---|
| NAME | William E Hammitt |
| GIVEN NAMES | William E |
| FAMILY NAME | Hammitt |
| SIGNATURE | HAMMITT W E |
| AFFILIATIONS | Clemson University |
| VERIFIED | No |
| TOTAL WORKS | 33 |
| TOTAL CITATIONS | 333 |
| AUTHOR COUNT | 33 |
| EDITOR COUNT | 0 |
| FIRST PUBLICATION YEAR | 1980 |
| LATEST PUBLICATION YEAR | 2012 |
| H-INDEX | 10 |
Reassessing the Structure of Enduring Leisure Involvement
Using data collected from U.S. and Greek respondents, we tested an alternate conceptualization of enduring leisure involvement where identity was considered a key driver of other affective and conative outcomes. Rather than existing on the same temporal plane, as has been the tradition in the leisure literature, we observed that identity was an antecedent of the other involvement facets. Our work provides a theoretical framework ground in microso…
Predictive Linkages between Recreation Specialization and Place Attachment
The theory of recreation specialization indicates that as recreationists become more specialized into a recreation activity, they become more dependent on particular resources along a continuum of specialization. Previous empirical studies examining bivariate relationships have not provided a comprehensive understanding of the predictive linkages between recreation specialization and place attachment. This paper employed three sub-dimensions of r…
Comparison of Place Bonding Models in Recreation Resource Management
Conceptual studies of place bonding have often stopped short of verifying the relationship of scales/models to other relevant recreation behavior variables. The current paper addresses this concern by comparing three models (full, parsimonious, and partial models) of place bonding and their scale measurement to a dependent variable, experience use history (EUH), for degree of predictive validity. Results reveal that the full and parsimonious plac…
Law Enforcement Perceptions and Changes in the United States Park Service: Urban proximity and level of enforcement practices
Crime and urban encroachment to United States National Parks and other natural resource areas has been a growing problem for land managers. This study examined how the perceptions of law enforcement rangers have developed in respect to the level of enforcement toward law‐breaking visitors over a 25‐year period, and it identified the role of a park unit's proximity to an urban area on this relationship. An Internet survey of US National Park super…
A Modified Involvement Scale
This investigation examines the psychometric properties of a modified involvement scale (MIS) using recreationists sampled at a national forest in upstate South Carolina and consumers enquiring about angling opportunities in the Low Country of South Carolina. Following the testing of several model configurations, support for a conceptualization of enduring involvement was observed consisting of five correlated facets: attraction, centrality, soci…
Experience Use History and Relationship to the Importance of Substitute Stream Attributes
Members of two Trout Unlimited Chapters associated with the Chattooga National Wild and Scenic River (South Carolina, Georgia) completed mail surveys (n = 292, 71% response rate) of experience use history with local substitute streams, number of substitute streams for the Chattooga, and importance ratings for stream and fishing attributes. About 65% of anglers had three or fewer substitute streams; nearly 15% had seven or more that were equivalen…
Coping with Stress Resulting from Social Value Conflict: Non-Hunters' Response to Anticipated Social Interaction with Hunters
This research investigated nonhunting-hikers' response to social interactions with hunters in outdoor recreation settings. Hikers were presented with a hypothetical scenario describing a social interaction with hunters. Social value conflict and psychological stress/coping theories were used to hypothesize and test a structural equation model. Fifty-two percent of the sample (n = 388) indicated that the social interaction would be stressful. Hike…
Place Bonding for Recreation Places: Conceptual and Empirical Development
Place bonding is a common phenomenon in many recreation areas, where people develop an affective and cognitive based attachment to special resource settings. Conceptually, place bonding is fairly well understood; empirically it is less so. In this study, a five dimensional orientation to place bonding of trout anglers for a wild and scenic stream was conceptually and empirically developed. The dimensions of place familiarity, belongingness, ident…
An Examination of the Motivation—Involvement Relationship
In this investigation, the relationship between motivation and enduring involvement was explored using a sample of campers drawn from three distinct campsites in a southeastern national forest, USA. The campsites varied along the ROS continuum from developed to wilderness. Using multidimensional conceptualizations of both constructs, a model was tested where the dimensions of motivation were modeled to positively influence the dimensions of endur…
Stress Appraisal and Coping Response to Hassles Experienced in Outdoor Recreation Settings
The purpose of this article was to report recreationists' coping response to stress experienced in outdoor recreation settings. Stress was defined as daily hassles. The most frequent sources of hassles were litter, noise from other people, damage to the resource, and too many people at campsites. Recreationists used a coping scheme that combined problem and emotion-focused coping mechanisms. Intensity of stress moderately predicted coping respons…
Experience Use History, Place Bonding and Resource Substitution of Trout Anglers During Recreation Engagements
Experience use history (EUH) was hypothesized to be linked to recreational place bonding and resource substitution behavior. Trout anglers (n = 203) of two Trout Unlimited chapters were surveyed (response rate = 71%) for EUH, place bonding, and resource substitution. Four classifications (Beginners, Visitors, Locals, and Veterans) of EUH were formed, a 26-item scale was rated to form five dimensions of place bonding (Familiarity, Belongingness, I…
A Theoretical Model to Measure the Appraisal and Coping Response to Hassles in Outdoor Recreation Settings
Confirmatory factor analysis was used to assess measurement models for the stress/coping process experienced in outdoor recreation settings. Three separate measurement models were evaluated: (1) experience use history and social support, (2) secondary appraisal, and (3) ways of coping scales. This research documents the development of models that can be improved upon by future researchers and promote stress/coping theory building in outdoor recre…
Environmental Socialization: Quantitative Tests of the Childhood Play Hypothesis
Two studies with adolescent youth ( N = 1,376, N = 450) help clarify the relationship between childhood play experiences in wild environments and later environmental preferences in the life domains of work, leisure, and school. Respondents reporting having played in wild environments had more positive perceptions of natural environments, outdoor recreation activities, and future indoor/outdoor occupational environments. No significant differences…
Cognitive Dimensions of Wilderness Privacy: An 18-Year Trend Comparison
In 1999, replication of a 1981 study was conducted as exactly as possible as the 1981 study, involving the same number of respondents ( n = 109), universities, recreation management classes, classroom-administered questionnaire, and data analysis. Cognitive states of privacy were measured using a 20-item scale, rated on a 7-point importance continuum. Trend analysis involved individual scale item and factor analysis comparisons between the 1981 v…
Evaluating the Construct Validity of Sense of Belonging as a Measure of Landscape Perception
The construct validity of measures of sense of belonging to a recreational landscape is examined. The evaluation of construct validity emphasizes two concerns: (1) the empirical relationship between measures of two theoretically distinct concepts (belonging and visual preference); (2) the empirical relationship between measures of these concepts and theoretically relevant visitor characteristics. Visitor responses to photo-based measures of belon…
Visitor response to outdoor recreation conflict: A conceptual approach
Outdoor recreation conflict involves both a visitor's perception of and response to conflict. While existing recreation conflict research has been insightful on factors leading to recreation conflict, it deals little with visitor response to conflict. To address the visitor‐response dimension in conflict, a conceptual framework based upon response to stressful situations is presented. The model, adapted from Lazarus and Folkman's (1984) stress‐re…
Use encounter standards and curves for achieved privacy in wilderness
The purpose of this study was to investigate the relationship between wilderness use encounters and degree of privacy achieved at three locations within a wilderness. The theoretical perspective of the research was grounded in environmental psychology, which emphasized the dynamic nature of person and situation fit, rather than the sociology of normative behavior. The study depicted privacy as a dependent measure and argued that privacy is not th…
Purism revisited: Specifying recreational conditions of concern according to resource intent
Understanding differences in recreational users, activities, and resource choices is essential to balanced management of outdoor recreation resources. Measures of purism (one's attitudinal orientation toward an ideal) facilitate this understanding for wilderness recreation but have been superseded by the related concept of recreation specialization. Purism is revisited to determine if it is still useful in understanding differences in recreationi…
Congruency among experience dimensions, condition indicators, and coping behaviors in wilderness
Understanding the way that policy translates into experiences, perceptions, and behaviors is important to managing recreation in wilderness. The limits of acceptable change (LAC) planning system was used to structure a relationship between three constructs: experience dimensions (goals), conditions of concern (condition indicators), and coping behaviors (actions) in wilderness recreation. The Wilderness Act of 1964 served as a conceptual basis, p…
Coping Behavior to Avoid Visitor Encounters: Its Relationship to Wildland Privacy
Too many visitor encounters can detract from the privacy sought in wildland environments. Coping behavior to avoid or adjust to visitor encounters is one procedure for reducing encounters and maintaining wildland privacy. This paper examines the degree to which backpackers in Great Smoky Mountains National Park used six physical and six social coping behaviors to avoid encounters/interactions with other backpackers. The influences of solitude imp…
Backcountry Encounter Norms, Actual Reported Encounters, and Their Relationship to Wilderness Solitude
Backcountry backpackers' norms concerning the maximum acceptable tolerance limits for visual-social contacts at three encounter sites (trailhead, trail, and campsite) were examined in the Great Smoky Mountains National Park. Actual encounter levels were examined by asking backpackers to report the number of parties encountered at each of these three locations. Although 83% of the respondents reported encountering more parties than their acceptabl…
Cognitive dimensions of wilderness privacy: A field test and further explanation
In 1981 and 1982, a psychological scale was developed for exploring the several meanings of privacy and solitude that wilderness recreationists find to be important. The scale was never field tested, however. The present report describes the results of a field test of the wilderness privacy scale among backpackers in Great Smoky Mountains National Park in 1987. Factor analysis of 20 items characterizing various aspects of wilderness privacy produ…
A Comparison of User vs Researcher Determined Level of Past Experience on Recreation Preference
Amount of past use-experience in recreational pursuits can be determined many ways, and have varying amounts of influence on recreation choice and preferences. This paper reports two measures of past experience that were compared: (1) an index value composed of four measures of frequency and years of participation, and (2) a user-declared classification of four experience-skill levels (i.e. beginner to expert). Horseback rider preference for eque…
Wildland recreation: Ecology and management
Policy Decision Factors Concerning Recreational Resource Impacts
Experience Use History, Place Bonding and Resource Substitution of Trout Anglers During Recreation Engagements
Experience use history (EUH) was hypothesized to be linked to recreational place bonding and resource substitution behavior. Trout anglers (n = 203) of two Trout Unlimited chapters were surveyed (response rate = 71%) for EUH, place bonding, and resource substitution. Four classifications (Beginners, Visitors, Locals, and Veterans) of EUH were formed, a 26-item scale was rated to form five dimensions of place bonding (Familiarity, Belongingness, I…
Place Bonding for Recreation Places: Conceptual and Empirical Development
Place bonding is a common phenomenon in many recreation areas, where people develop an affective and cognitive based attachment to special resource settings. Conceptually, place bonding is fairly well understood; empirically it is less so. In this study, a five dimensional orientation to place bonding of trout anglers for a wild and scenic stream was conceptually and empirically developed. The dimensions of place familiarity, belongingness, ident…
Backcountry Encounter Norms, Actual Reported Encounters, and Their Relationship to Wilderness Solitude
Backcountry backpackers' norms concerning the maximum acceptable tolerance limits for visual-social contacts at three encounter sites (trailhead, trail, and campsite) were examined in the Great Smoky Mountains National Park. Actual encounter levels were examined by asking backpackers to report the number of parties encountered at each of these three locations. Although 83% of the respondents reported encountering more parties than their acceptabl…
Outdoor Recreation: Is It A Multi-Phase Experience
A recreational experience has been defined by Clawson (1963) and Clawson and Knetsch (1966) as a multiphase experience, consisting of five major phases: anticipation, travel-to, onsite, travel-back, and recollection. It is commonly supposed that a variety of benefits for people result from participation in the various phases of the total recreational experience. While this concept has intuitive meaning and has been widely accepted in outdoor recr…
A Modified Involvement Scale
This investigation examines the psychometric properties of a modified involvement scale (MIS) using recreationists sampled at a national forest in upstate South Carolina and consumers enquiring about angling opportunities in the Low Country of South Carolina. Following the testing of several model configurations, support for a conceptualization of enduring involvement was observed consisting of five correlated facets: attraction, centrality, soci…
Comparison of Place Bonding Models in Recreation Resource Management
Conceptual studies of place bonding have often stopped short of verifying the relationship of scales/models to other relevant recreation behavior variables. The current paper addresses this concern by comparing three models (full, parsimonious, and partial models) of place bonding and their scale measurement to a dependent variable, experience use history (EUH), for degree of predictive validity. Results reveal that the full and parsimonious plac…
Coping Behavior to Avoid Visitor Encounters: Its Relationship to Wildland Privacy
Too many visitor encounters can detract from the privacy sought in wildland environments. Coping behavior to avoid or adjust to visitor encounters is one procedure for reducing encounters and maintaining wildland privacy. This paper examines the degree to which backpackers in Great Smoky Mountains National Park used six physical and six social coping behaviors to avoid encounters/interactions with other backpackers. The influences of solitude imp…
An Examination of the Motivation—Involvement Relationship
In this investigation, the relationship between motivation and enduring involvement was explored using a sample of campers drawn from three distinct campsites in a southeastern national forest, USA. The campsites varied along the ROS continuum from developed to wilderness. Using multidimensional conceptualizations of both constructs, a model was tested where the dimensions of motivation were modeled to positively influence the dimensions of endur…
Visitor response to outdoor recreation conflict: A conceptual approach
Outdoor recreation conflict involves both a visitor's perception of and response to conflict. While existing recreation conflict research has been insightful on factors leading to recreation conflict, it deals little with visitor response to conflict. To address the visitor‐response dimension in conflict, a conceptual framework based upon response to stressful situations is presented. The model, adapted from Lazarus and Folkman's (1984) stress‐re…
A Comparison of User vs Researcher Determined Level of Past Experience on Recreation Preference
Amount of past use-experience in recreational pursuits can be determined many ways, and have varying amounts of influence on recreation choice and preferences. This paper reports two measures of past experience that were compared: (1) an index value composed of four measures of frequency and years of participation, and (2) a user-declared classification of four experience-skill levels (i.e. beginner to expert). Horseback rider preference for eque…
Stress Appraisal and Coping Response to Hassles Experienced in Outdoor Recreation Settings
The purpose of this article was to report recreationists' coping response to stress experienced in outdoor recreation settings. Stress was defined as daily hassles. The most frequent sources of hassles were litter, noise from other people, damage to the resource, and too many people at campsites. Recreationists used a coping scheme that combined problem and emotion-focused coping mechanisms. Intensity of stress moderately predicted coping respons…
A Theoretical Model to Measure the Appraisal and Coping Response to Hassles in Outdoor Recreation Settings
Confirmatory factor analysis was used to assess measurement models for the stress/coping process experienced in outdoor recreation settings. Three separate measurement models were evaluated: (1) experience use history and social support, (2) secondary appraisal, and (3) ways of coping scales. This research documents the development of models that can be improved upon by future researchers and promote stress/coping theory building in outdoor recre…
Reassessing the Structure of Enduring Leisure Involvement
Using data collected from U.S. and Greek respondents, we tested an alternate conceptualization of enduring leisure involvement where identity was considered a key driver of other affective and conative outcomes. Rather than existing on the same temporal plane, as has been the tradition in the leisure literature, we observed that identity was an antecedent of the other involvement facets. Our work provides a theoretical framework ground in microso…
Predictive Linkages between Recreation Specialization and Place Attachment
The theory of recreation specialization indicates that as recreationists become more specialized into a recreation activity, they become more dependent on particular resources along a continuum of specialization. Previous empirical studies examining bivariate relationships have not provided a comprehensive understanding of the predictive linkages between recreation specialization and place attachment. This paper employed three sub-dimensions of r…
Use Level and Encounters: Important Variables of Perceived Crowding Among Nonspecialized Recreationists
Use level, visual encounters, crowding expectations, and feelings, were examined by regression techniques to explain perceived crowding among innertube floaters. The model explained 47 percent of the variance in perceived crowding. However, unlike previous studies which have shown crowding expectation and feeling antecedents to be most influential, 43 percent of the variance was accounted for by perceived density and use variables. Degree of user…
Response Bias and the Need for Extensive Mail Questionnaire Follow-ups Among Selected Recreation Samples
The hypothesis advanced by Wellman et al. (1980), that extensive follow-up efforts to achieve high mail questionnaire response rates may not be necessary in certain types of recreation studies, was examined. Both a non-response and a date-of-return analysis for data from innertube floaters of two Southern Appalachian streams showed very few significant differences. The findings lend support to research that suggests survey response rates typicall…
Purism revisited: Specifying recreational conditions of concern according to resource intent
Understanding differences in recreational users, activities, and resource choices is essential to balanced management of outdoor recreation resources. Measures of purism (one's attitudinal orientation toward an ideal) facilitate this understanding for wilderness recreation but have been superseded by the related concept of recreation specialization. Purism is revisited to determine if it is still useful in understanding differences in recreationi…
Cognitive dimensions of wilderness privacy: A field test and further explanation
In 1981 and 1982, a psychological scale was developed for exploring the several meanings of privacy and solitude that wilderness recreationists find to be important. The scale was never field tested, however. The present report describes the results of a field test of the wilderness privacy scale among backpackers in Great Smoky Mountains National Park in 1987. Factor analysis of 20 items characterizing various aspects of wilderness privacy produ…
The familiarity‐preference component of on‐site recreational experiences
Four hundred visitors to a bog environment were surveyed to determine the influence of familiarity on preference response to the visual environment, and to determine the degree of familiarity resulting from the on‐site encounter. Influence of familiarity on visitor preference was measured in terms of degree of visitor preference for visual scenes as a result of acquaintance gained through three means of familiarity: on‐site experiences, viewing o…
Functions of privacy in wilderness environments
Westin (1967), in his Privacy and Freedom, suggests that there are four basic functions of privacy in society (personal autonomy, emotional release, self‐evaluation, limited and protected communication). Westin's theoretical model was examined for its utility in understanding the functions of privacy in wilderness environments. Importance ratings of 106 wilderness users for 28 scale items which characterized the privacy functions were factor anal…
Toward an ecological approach to perceived crowding in outdoor recreation
Perceived crowding in outdoor recreation research is generally approached from a sociological or interpersonal basis. The purpose of this paper is to present a conceptual approach to perceived crowding where people/environment interactions are emphasized, rather than social relationships. Crowding is treated as a perceptual reaction to an environmental situation, where environmental constraints interfere with the functioning and task performances…
Use encounter standards and curves for achieved privacy in wilderness
The purpose of this study was to investigate the relationship between wilderness use encounters and degree of privacy achieved at three locations within a wilderness. The theoretical perspective of the research was grounded in environmental psychology, which emphasized the dynamic nature of person and situation fit, rather than the sociology of normative behavior. The study depicted privacy as a dependent measure and argued that privacy is not th…
Evaluating the Construct Validity of Sense of Belonging as a Measure of Landscape Perception
The construct validity of measures of sense of belonging to a recreational landscape is examined. The evaluation of construct validity emphasizes two concerns: (1) the empirical relationship between measures of two theoretically distinct concepts (belonging and visual preference); (2) the empirical relationship between measures of these concepts and theoretically relevant visitor characteristics. Visitor responses to photo-based measures of belon…
Prospect Refuge Theory: A Psychological Orientation for Edge Effect in Recreation Environments
Edge, or the ecotone between teo contrasting habitats, has long been recognized as a preferred environmental setting for wildlife. Recreationists also prefer edge environments, both as physical park settings and as a visual component during sightseeing experiences. However, we have little theory or empirical data for defining why edges are a preferred aspect of outdoor recreation environments, or for visual preference for different types and aspe…
Congruency among experience dimensions, condition indicators, and coping behaviors in wilderness
Understanding the way that policy translates into experiences, perceptions, and behaviors is important to managing recreation in wilderness. The limits of acceptable change (LAC) planning system was used to structure a relationship between three constructs: experience dimensions (goals), conditions of concern (condition indicators), and coping behaviors (actions) in wilderness recreation. The Wilderness Act of 1964 served as a conceptual basis, p…
Outdoor Recreation: Is It A Multi-Phase Experience
A recreational experience has been defined by Clawson (1963) and Clawson and Knetsch (1966) as a multiphase experience, consisting of five major phases: anticipation, travel-to, onsite, travel-back, and recollection. It is commonly supposed that a variety of benefits for people result from participation in the various phases of the total recreational experience. While this concept has intuitive meaning and has been widely accepted in outdoor recr…
The familiarity‐preference component of on‐site recreational experiences
Four hundred visitors to a bog environment were surveyed to determine the influence of familiarity on preference response to the visual environment, and to determine the degree of familiarity resulting from the on‐site encounter. Influence of familiarity on visitor preference was measured in terms of degree of visitor preference for visual scenes as a result of acquaintance gained through three means of familiarity: on‐site experiences, viewing o…
Response Bias and the Need for Extensive Mail Questionnaire Follow-ups Among Selected Recreation Samples
The hypothesis advanced by Wellman et al. (1980), that extensive follow-up efforts to achieve high mail questionnaire response rates may not be necessary in certain types of recreation studies, was examined. Both a non-response and a date-of-return analysis for data from innertube floaters of two Southern Appalachian streams showed very few significant differences. The findings lend support to research that suggests survey response rates typicall…
Toward an ecological approach to perceived crowding in outdoor recreation
Perceived crowding in outdoor recreation research is generally approached from a sociological or interpersonal basis. The purpose of this paper is to present a conceptual approach to perceived crowding where people/environment interactions are emphasized, rather than social relationships. Crowding is treated as a perceptual reaction to an environmental situation, where environmental constraints interfere with the functioning and task performances…
Functions of privacy in wilderness environments
Westin (1967), in his Privacy and Freedom, suggests that there are four basic functions of privacy in society (personal autonomy, emotional release, self‐evaluation, limited and protected communication). Westin's theoretical model was examined for its utility in understanding the functions of privacy in wilderness environments. Importance ratings of 106 wilderness users for 28 scale items which characterized the privacy functions were factor anal…
Use Level and Encounters: Important Variables of Perceived Crowding Among Nonspecialized Recreationists
Use level, visual encounters, crowding expectations, and feelings, were examined by regression techniques to explain perceived crowding among innertube floaters. The model explained 47 percent of the variance in perceived crowding. However, unlike previous studies which have shown crowding expectation and feeling antecedents to be most influential, 43 percent of the variance was accounted for by perceived density and use variables. Degree of user…
How “National” are the Participation and Use Patterns of National Park Visitors
National parks are commonly conceived as serving a stereotyped role within tourism-recreation delivery systems. They are often thought of as being destination parks that visitors drive more than a day to reach and spend several days visiting. National parks are also stereotyped as serving a national and international audience, in pursuit of tourism activities. Ten major U. S. national parks were examined to determine if the activites participated…
Policy Decision Factors Concerning Recreational Resource Impacts
Prospect Refuge Theory: A Psychological Orientation for Edge Effect in Recreation Environments
Edge, or the ecotone between teo contrasting habitats, has long been recognized as a preferred environmental setting for wildlife. Recreationists also prefer edge environments, both as physical park settings and as a visual component during sightseeing experiences. However, we have little theory or empirical data for defining why edges are a preferred aspect of outdoor recreation environments, or for visual preference for different types and aspe…
Wildland recreation: Ecology and management
Cognitive dimensions of wilderness privacy: A field test and further explanation
In 1981 and 1982, a psychological scale was developed for exploring the several meanings of privacy and solitude that wilderness recreationists find to be important. The scale was never field tested, however. The present report describes the results of a field test of the wilderness privacy scale among backpackers in Great Smoky Mountains National Park in 1987. Factor analysis of 20 items characterizing various aspects of wilderness privacy produ…
A Comparison of User vs Researcher Determined Level of Past Experience on Recreation Preference
Amount of past use-experience in recreational pursuits can be determined many ways, and have varying amounts of influence on recreation choice and preferences. This paper reports two measures of past experience that were compared: (1) an index value composed of four measures of frequency and years of participation, and (2) a user-declared classification of four experience-skill levels (i.e. beginner to expert). Horseback rider preference for eque…
Backcountry Encounter Norms, Actual Reported Encounters, and Their Relationship to Wilderness Solitude
Backcountry backpackers' norms concerning the maximum acceptable tolerance limits for visual-social contacts at three encounter sites (trailhead, trail, and campsite) were examined in the Great Smoky Mountains National Park. Actual encounter levels were examined by asking backpackers to report the number of parties encountered at each of these three locations. Although 83% of the respondents reported encountering more parties than their acceptabl…
Coping Behavior to Avoid Visitor Encounters: Its Relationship to Wildland Privacy
Too many visitor encounters can detract from the privacy sought in wildland environments. Coping behavior to avoid or adjust to visitor encounters is one procedure for reducing encounters and maintaining wildland privacy. This paper examines the degree to which backpackers in Great Smoky Mountains National Park used six physical and six social coping behaviors to avoid encounters/interactions with other backpackers. The influences of solitude imp…
Visitor response to outdoor recreation conflict: A conceptual approach
Outdoor recreation conflict involves both a visitor's perception of and response to conflict. While existing recreation conflict research has been insightful on factors leading to recreation conflict, it deals little with visitor response to conflict. To address the visitor‐response dimension in conflict, a conceptual framework based upon response to stressful situations is presented. The model, adapted from Lazarus and Folkman's (1984) stress‐re…
Use encounter standards and curves for achieved privacy in wilderness
The purpose of this study was to investigate the relationship between wilderness use encounters and degree of privacy achieved at three locations within a wilderness. The theoretical perspective of the research was grounded in environmental psychology, which emphasized the dynamic nature of person and situation fit, rather than the sociology of normative behavior. The study depicted privacy as a dependent measure and argued that privacy is not th…
Purism revisited: Specifying recreational conditions of concern according to resource intent
Understanding differences in recreational users, activities, and resource choices is essential to balanced management of outdoor recreation resources. Measures of purism (one's attitudinal orientation toward an ideal) facilitate this understanding for wilderness recreation but have been superseded by the related concept of recreation specialization. Purism is revisited to determine if it is still useful in understanding differences in recreationi…
Congruency among experience dimensions, condition indicators, and coping behaviors in wilderness
Understanding the way that policy translates into experiences, perceptions, and behaviors is important to managing recreation in wilderness. The limits of acceptable change (LAC) planning system was used to structure a relationship between three constructs: experience dimensions (goals), conditions of concern (condition indicators), and coping behaviors (actions) in wilderness recreation. The Wilderness Act of 1964 served as a conceptual basis, p…
Evaluating the Construct Validity of Sense of Belonging as a Measure of Landscape Perception
The construct validity of measures of sense of belonging to a recreational landscape is examined. The evaluation of construct validity emphasizes two concerns: (1) the empirical relationship between measures of two theoretically distinct concepts (belonging and visual preference); (2) the empirical relationship between measures of these concepts and theoretically relevant visitor characteristics. Visitor responses to photo-based measures of belon…
Cognitive Dimensions of Wilderness Privacy: An 18-Year Trend Comparison
In 1999, replication of a 1981 study was conducted as exactly as possible as the 1981 study, involving the same number of respondents ( n = 109), universities, recreation management classes, classroom-administered questionnaire, and data analysis. Cognitive states of privacy were measured using a 20-item scale, rated on a 7-point importance continuum. Trend analysis involved individual scale item and factor analysis comparisons between the 1981 v…
Environmental Socialization: Quantitative Tests of the Childhood Play Hypothesis
Two studies with adolescent youth ( N = 1,376, N = 450) help clarify the relationship between childhood play experiences in wild environments and later environmental preferences in the life domains of work, leisure, and school. Respondents reporting having played in wild environments had more positive perceptions of natural environments, outdoor recreation activities, and future indoor/outdoor occupational environments. No significant differences…
A Theoretical Model to Measure the Appraisal and Coping Response to Hassles in Outdoor Recreation Settings
Confirmatory factor analysis was used to assess measurement models for the stress/coping process experienced in outdoor recreation settings. Three separate measurement models were evaluated: (1) experience use history and social support, (2) secondary appraisal, and (3) ways of coping scales. This research documents the development of models that can be improved upon by future researchers and promote stress/coping theory building in outdoor recre…
Experience Use History, Place Bonding and Resource Substitution of Trout Anglers During Recreation Engagements
Experience use history (EUH) was hypothesized to be linked to recreational place bonding and resource substitution behavior. Trout anglers (n = 203) of two Trout Unlimited chapters were surveyed (response rate = 71%) for EUH, place bonding, and resource substitution. Four classifications (Beginners, Visitors, Locals, and Veterans) of EUH were formed, a 26-item scale was rated to form five dimensions of place bonding (Familiarity, Belongingness, I…
Experience Use History and Relationship to the Importance of Substitute Stream Attributes
Members of two Trout Unlimited Chapters associated with the Chattooga National Wild and Scenic River (South Carolina, Georgia) completed mail surveys (n = 292, 71% response rate) of experience use history with local substitute streams, number of substitute streams for the Chattooga, and importance ratings for stream and fishing attributes. About 65% of anglers had three or fewer substitute streams; nearly 15% had seven or more that were equivalen…
Coping with Stress Resulting from Social Value Conflict: Non-Hunters' Response to Anticipated Social Interaction with Hunters
This research investigated nonhunting-hikers' response to social interactions with hunters in outdoor recreation settings. Hikers were presented with a hypothetical scenario describing a social interaction with hunters. Social value conflict and psychological stress/coping theories were used to hypothesize and test a structural equation model. Fifty-two percent of the sample (n = 388) indicated that the social interaction would be stressful. Hike…
Recreation, Leisure, Wilderness Management (31 works) · Psychology (28 works) · Social Psychology (23 works) · Recreation (22 works) · Social Psychology (22 works) · Ecology (20 works) · Ecology (17 works) · Geography (17 works) · Diverse Aspects of Tourism Research (16 works) · Computer Science (14 works)