Rick E Ingram
Biographic Data
| ID | 614226 |
|---|---|
| NAME | Rick E Ingram |
| GIVEN NAMES | Rick E |
| FAMILY NAME | Ingram |
| SIGNATURE | INGRAM R E |
| AFFILIATIONS | San Diego State University |
| ORCID | 0000-0001-7180-053X |
| VERIFIED | Yes |
| TOTAL WORKS | 21 |
| TOTAL CITATIONS | 40 |
| AUTHOR COUNT | 21 |
| EDITOR COUNT | 0 |
| FIRST PUBLICATION YEAR | 1978 |
| LATEST PUBLICATION YEAR | 2025 |
| H-INDEX | 4 |
Co-rumination and depression: A systematic review and future directions
Introduction: Literature on risk for depression largely focuses on intrapersonal risk factors, especially rumination, yet identifying interpersonal behaviors that increase negative affect may have important implications for understanding depression and risk for depression. Co-rumination is an explicitly interpersonal process that entails extensive and repetitive discussion of problems and associated negative affect within a dyad. Co-rumination ha…
Disentangling Attachment, Parental Bonding, and Depression Symptoms in Young Adults
Irregularities in parental attachment and parental bonding are both linked to depressive symptoms in young adults. Although these two constructs are associated with each other, they are also distinct. Bonding and attachment are often studied separately, with little research comparing them in their ability to uniquely predict depressive symptoms. The current study examined these constructs in the same study to further elucidate their relationship …
Facial affect processing and depression susceptibility: Cognitive biases and cognitive neuroscience
Facial affect processing is essential to social development and functioning and is particularly relevant to models of depression. Although cognitive and interpersonal theories have long described different pathways to depression, cognitive-interpersonal and evolutionary social risk models of depression focus on the interrelation of interpersonal experience, cognition, and social behavior. We therefore review the burgeoning depressive facial affec…
Vulnerability-Stress Models
Reliability and Validity of the Beck Depression and Anxiety Inventories in Caucasian Americans and Latinos
Although the Beck Depression Inventory and Beck Anxiety Inventory are two of the most widely used instruments for assessing depressive and anxious symptoms in both clinical and nonclinical populations, their cross-cultural reliability and validity have yet to be fully established. In this study, 2,703 Caucasian American and 1,110 Latino college students completed both measures. For each measure, exploratory factor analysis with promax rotation, c…
Tilting at windmills: A response to Pyszczynski, Greenberg, Hamilton, and Nix
Although different perspectives can encourage a productive dialogue on the relationship between psychopathology and self-focused attention, Pyszczynski, Greenberg, Hamilton, and Nix's (1991) response to Ingram (1990) confuses important issues, offers a variety of peculiar interpretations, and takes issue with points never raised. Pyszczynski, Greenberg, et al, have failed to distinguish between generalized psychopathology processes; they present …
Tilting at windmills: A response to Pyszczynski, Greenberg, Hamilton, and Nix
Self-focused attention in clinical disorders: Review and a conceptual model
Working largely independently, numerous investigators have explored the role of self-focused attention in various clinical disorders. This article reviews research examining increased self-focused attention in these disorders. Results indicate that regardless of the particular disorder under investigation, a heightened degree of self-focused attention is found. Hence, as ordinarily conceptualized, self-focused attention has little discriminatory …
Self-focused attention in clinical disorders: Review and a conceptual model
Affective confounds in social-cognitive research
Self-focused attention, gender, gender role, and vulnerability to negative affect
Research has independently shown that both gender and self-focused attention are linked to depression. In this article, we report a series of studies investigating the relation between these variables. Using a standard self-focusing manipulation, Study 1 suggested that women evidence a greater propensity to self-focus than men. We replicated these findings in Study 2. In Study 3, we conducted an experiment to determine if sex role in conjunction …
Issues and recommendations regarding use of the Beck Depression Inventory
Cognitive specificity in emotional distress
Cognitive approaches to emotional distress posit that specific cognitive factors are critically linked to the etiology, course, or treatment of dysfunction. Although a number of empirical studies have assessed cognitive factors in emotional disorders such as depression and anxiety, research has yet to assess these variables simultaneously and with identical cognitive measures. Using depression and test anxiety as models of dysfunctional affective…
On the self-serving function of social anxiety: Shyness as a self-handicapping strategy
We tested the hypothesis that socially anxious or shy individuals use their anxiety symptoms as a strategy to control attributions made about their performances in social-evaluative settings (i.e., self-handicapping strategies). Specifically, we predicted that trait-socially anxious or shy persons would report more symptoms of social anxiety in an evaluative setting in which anxiety or shyness could serve as an excuse for poor performance than wo…
Factors in the Self-Deception Questionnaire: Associations with depression
Disagreement presently exists over whether depressed or nondepressed persons exercise more cognitive distortion on material about the self. A negative correlation between the Self-Deception Questionnaire (SDQ, Sackeim & Gur, 1978, 1979) and the Beck Depression Inventory (BDI, Beck, 1967) has been cited as evidence that it is the nondepressed individuals who exercise more distortion (Sackeim, 1983). This negative correlation was replicated, and th…
Self-awareness and self-confrontation: Effects of self-focused attention on members of a clinical population
Research in the area of self-awareness theory has indicated that self-focused attention consistently produces both an increase in perceived intensity of affect and enhanced accuracy of self-reports. The present studies consider these effects in relation to the technique of self-confrontation as used in psychotherapy. In the first study, members of two different clinical populations (alcoholics and general psychiatric patients) either were or were…
Company motivates the miserable: The impact of consensus information on help seeking for psychological problems
Based on an attribution theory analysis, it was predicted that normal individuals (people who do not evidence a particular target problem) would be least motivated to seek help for a psychological problem when they believe that the problem is actuarially common (i.e., high consensus). Based on an analysis of how target problem people evaluate their psychological problem, however, it was predicted that such individuals (unlike normal individuals) …
Social anxiety, anxious self-preoccupation, and recall of self-relevant information
Theoretical and empirical efforts concerning cognitive processes associated with anxiety have typically emphasized either cognitive deficits (i.e., reduced learning, memory, and task performance) or cognitive excesses (i.e., increased self-focused, ruminative thought). To date, evidence of these two types of cognitive processes has primarily been based on different types of sources (i.e., performance measures vs. self-reports), which precludes di…
Depression and information processing: Self-schemata and the encoding of self-referent information
Desire for personal feedback: Who wants it and what does it mean for psychotherapy
Individual differences in desire for feedback did not exhibit any significant correlations with a variety of self-report personality dimensions. Additional survey studies indicated that a higher proportion of individuals in nonclinical as compared to clinical samples reported a strong desire to receive feedback about themselves. Subsequent studies revealed that the higher as compared to lower desire for feedback individuals: (1) were more willing…
Role of Expectancy Factors in Behavioral Self-Control Therapies: An Experimental Inquiry
Most research in the area of behavioral self-control has focused either on its efficacy or its more obvious components, e.g., self-monitoring and self-reward. Expectancy factors have been relatively ignored. Utilizing a smoking-reduction paradigm, the present study investigated the possibility that positive expectancy may be related to success in behavioral self-control therapies. Two groups of volunteer students who wished to reduce their smokin…
Depression and information processing: Self-schemata and the encoding of self-referent information
Reliability and Validity of the Beck Depression and Anxiety Inventories in Caucasian Americans and Latinos
Although the Beck Depression Inventory and Beck Anxiety Inventory are two of the most widely used instruments for assessing depressive and anxious symptoms in both clinical and nonclinical populations, their cross-cultural reliability and validity have yet to be fully established. In this study, 2,703 Caucasian American and 1,110 Latino college students completed both measures. For each measure, exploratory factor analysis with promax rotation, c…
Cognitive specificity in emotional distress
Cognitive approaches to emotional distress posit that specific cognitive factors are critically linked to the etiology, course, or treatment of dysfunction. Although a number of empirical studies have assessed cognitive factors in emotional disorders such as depression and anxiety, research has yet to assess these variables simultaneously and with identical cognitive measures. Using depression and test anxiety as models of dysfunctional affective…
On the self-serving function of social anxiety: Shyness as a self-handicapping strategy
We tested the hypothesis that socially anxious or shy individuals use their anxiety symptoms as a strategy to control attributions made about their performances in social-evaluative settings (i.e., self-handicapping strategies). Specifically, we predicted that trait-socially anxious or shy persons would report more symptoms of social anxiety in an evaluative setting in which anxiety or shyness could serve as an excuse for poor performance than wo…
Self-focused attention, gender, gender role, and vulnerability to negative affect
Research has independently shown that both gender and self-focused attention are linked to depression. In this article, we report a series of studies investigating the relation between these variables. Using a standard self-focusing manipulation, Study 1 suggested that women evidence a greater propensity to self-focus than men. We replicated these findings in Study 2. In Study 3, we conducted an experiment to determine if sex role in conjunction …
Affective confounds in social-cognitive research
Factors in the Self-Deception Questionnaire: Associations with depression
Disagreement presently exists over whether depressed or nondepressed persons exercise more cognitive distortion on material about the self. A negative correlation between the Self-Deception Questionnaire (SDQ, Sackeim & Gur, 1978, 1979) and the Beck Depression Inventory (BDI, Beck, 1967) has been cited as evidence that it is the nondepressed individuals who exercise more distortion (Sackeim, 1983). This negative correlation was replicated, and th…
Self-awareness and self-confrontation: Effects of self-focused attention on members of a clinical population
Research in the area of self-awareness theory has indicated that self-focused attention consistently produces both an increase in perceived intensity of affect and enhanced accuracy of self-reports. The present studies consider these effects in relation to the technique of self-confrontation as used in psychotherapy. In the first study, members of two different clinical populations (alcoholics and general psychiatric patients) either were or were…
Social anxiety, anxious self-preoccupation, and recall of self-relevant information
Theoretical and empirical efforts concerning cognitive processes associated with anxiety have typically emphasized either cognitive deficits (i.e., reduced learning, memory, and task performance) or cognitive excesses (i.e., increased self-focused, ruminative thought). To date, evidence of these two types of cognitive processes has primarily been based on different types of sources (i.e., performance measures vs. self-reports), which precludes di…
Role of Expectancy Factors in Behavioral Self-Control Therapies: An Experimental Inquiry
Most research in the area of behavioral self-control has focused either on its efficacy or its more obvious components, e.g., self-monitoring and self-reward. Expectancy factors have been relatively ignored. Utilizing a smoking-reduction paradigm, the present study investigated the possibility that positive expectancy may be related to success in behavioral self-control therapies. Two groups of volunteer students who wished to reduce their smokin…
Desire for personal feedback: Who wants it and what does it mean for psychotherapy
Individual differences in desire for feedback did not exhibit any significant correlations with a variety of self-report personality dimensions. Additional survey studies indicated that a higher proportion of individuals in nonclinical as compared to clinical samples reported a strong desire to receive feedback about themselves. Subsequent studies revealed that the higher as compared to lower desire for feedback individuals: (1) were more willing…
Company motivates the miserable: The impact of consensus information on help seeking for psychological problems
Based on an attribution theory analysis, it was predicted that normal individuals (people who do not evidence a particular target problem) would be least motivated to seek help for a psychological problem when they believe that the problem is actuarially common (i.e., high consensus). Based on an analysis of how target problem people evaluate their psychological problem, however, it was predicted that such individuals (unlike normal individuals) …
Social anxiety, anxious self-preoccupation, and recall of self-relevant information
Theoretical and empirical efforts concerning cognitive processes associated with anxiety have typically emphasized either cognitive deficits (i.e., reduced learning, memory, and task performance) or cognitive excesses (i.e., increased self-focused, ruminative thought). To date, evidence of these two types of cognitive processes has primarily been based on different types of sources (i.e., performance measures vs. self-reports), which precludes di…
Depression and information processing: Self-schemata and the encoding of self-referent information
On the self-serving function of social anxiety: Shyness as a self-handicapping strategy
We tested the hypothesis that socially anxious or shy individuals use their anxiety symptoms as a strategy to control attributions made about their performances in social-evaluative settings (i.e., self-handicapping strategies). Specifically, we predicted that trait-socially anxious or shy persons would report more symptoms of social anxiety in an evaluative setting in which anxiety or shyness could serve as an excuse for poor performance than wo…
Factors in the Self-Deception Questionnaire: Associations with depression
Disagreement presently exists over whether depressed or nondepressed persons exercise more cognitive distortion on material about the self. A negative correlation between the Self-Deception Questionnaire (SDQ, Sackeim & Gur, 1978, 1979) and the Beck Depression Inventory (BDI, Beck, 1967) has been cited as evidence that it is the nondepressed individuals who exercise more distortion (Sackeim, 1983). This negative correlation was replicated, and th…
Self-awareness and self-confrontation: Effects of self-focused attention on members of a clinical population
Research in the area of self-awareness theory has indicated that self-focused attention consistently produces both an increase in perceived intensity of affect and enhanced accuracy of self-reports. The present studies consider these effects in relation to the technique of self-confrontation as used in psychotherapy. In the first study, members of two different clinical populations (alcoholics and general psychiatric patients) either were or were…
Issues and recommendations regarding use of the Beck Depression Inventory
Cognitive specificity in emotional distress
Cognitive approaches to emotional distress posit that specific cognitive factors are critically linked to the etiology, course, or treatment of dysfunction. Although a number of empirical studies have assessed cognitive factors in emotional disorders such as depression and anxiety, research has yet to assess these variables simultaneously and with identical cognitive measures. Using depression and test anxiety as models of dysfunctional affective…
Self-focused attention, gender, gender role, and vulnerability to negative affect
Research has independently shown that both gender and self-focused attention are linked to depression. In this article, we report a series of studies investigating the relation between these variables. Using a standard self-focusing manipulation, Study 1 suggested that women evidence a greater propensity to self-focus than men. We replicated these findings in Study 2. In Study 3, we conducted an experiment to determine if sex role in conjunction …
Affective confounds in social-cognitive research
Self-focused attention in clinical disorders: Review and a conceptual model
Working largely independently, numerous investigators have explored the role of self-focused attention in various clinical disorders. This article reviews research examining increased self-focused attention in these disorders. Results indicate that regardless of the particular disorder under investigation, a heightened degree of self-focused attention is found. Hence, as ordinarily conceptualized, self-focused attention has little discriminatory …
Self-focused attention in clinical disorders: Review and a conceptual model
Tilting at windmills: A response to Pyszczynski, Greenberg, Hamilton, and Nix
Although different perspectives can encourage a productive dialogue on the relationship between psychopathology and self-focused attention, Pyszczynski, Greenberg, Hamilton, and Nix's (1991) response to Ingram (1990) confuses important issues, offers a variety of peculiar interpretations, and takes issue with points never raised. Pyszczynski, Greenberg, et al, have failed to distinguish between generalized psychopathology processes; they present …
Tilting at windmills: A response to Pyszczynski, Greenberg, Hamilton, and Nix
Reliability and Validity of the Beck Depression and Anxiety Inventories in Caucasian Americans and Latinos
Although the Beck Depression Inventory and Beck Anxiety Inventory are two of the most widely used instruments for assessing depressive and anxious symptoms in both clinical and nonclinical populations, their cross-cultural reliability and validity have yet to be fully established. In this study, 2,703 Caucasian American and 1,110 Latino college students completed both measures. For each measure, exploratory factor analysis with promax rotation, c…
Vulnerability-Stress Models
Facial affect processing and depression susceptibility: Cognitive biases and cognitive neuroscience
Facial affect processing is essential to social development and functioning and is particularly relevant to models of depression. Although cognitive and interpersonal theories have long described different pathways to depression, cognitive-interpersonal and evolutionary social risk models of depression focus on the interrelation of interpersonal experience, cognition, and social behavior. We therefore review the burgeoning depressive facial affec…
Co-rumination and depression: A systematic review and future directions
Introduction: Literature on risk for depression largely focuses on intrapersonal risk factors, especially rumination, yet identifying interpersonal behaviors that increase negative affect may have important implications for understanding depression and risk for depression. Co-rumination is an explicitly interpersonal process that entails extensive and repetitive discussion of problems and associated negative affect within a dyad. Co-rumination ha…
Disentangling Attachment, Parental Bonding, and Depression Symptoms in Young Adults
Irregularities in parental attachment and parental bonding are both linked to depressive symptoms in young adults. Although these two constructs are associated with each other, they are also distinct. Bonding and attachment are often studied separately, with little research comparing them in their ability to uniquely predict depressive symptoms. The current study examined these constructs in the same study to further elucidate their relationship …
Psychology (19 works) · Clinical Psychology (12 works) · Anxiety, Depression, Psychometrics, Treatment, Cognitive Processes (11 works) · Child and Adolescent Psychosocial and Emotional Development (11 works) · Developmental psychology (11 works) · Social Psychology (11 works) · Anxiety (9 works) · Psychiatry (9 works) · Social Psychology (9 works) · Cognitive psychology (7 works)