William E Brooks
Biographic Data
| ID | 6411801 |
|---|---|
| NAME | William E Brooks |
| GIVEN NAMES | William E |
| FAMILY NAME | Brooks |
| SIGNATURE | BROOKS W E |
| AFFILIATIONS | Society of Economic Geologists |
| ORCID | 0000-0002-4872-4775 |
| VERIFIED | Yes |
| TOTAL WORKS | 18 |
| TOTAL CITATIONS | 7 |
| WORKS AS AUTHOR | 18 |
| WORKS AS EDITOR | 0 |
| FIRST PUBLICATION YEAR | 1983 |
| LATEST PUBLICATION YEAR | 2026 |
| H-INDEX | 2 |
The Ancient Molinete, Plants, and Mercury Efficiency in Present-Day Artisanal Gold Mining, Northern Perú
The molinete, a smaller version of the quimbalete or Inka mill, was also used to crush gold ore in the ancient Andes and its present-day use, though limited, continues. It consists of a large, movable upper stone, or chungo, and a lower, stationary stone, or muscha, that has a depression to seat the chungo. Each stone may weigh approximately one ton. The worker is seated and rocks the chungo, by foot on the lower, water-lubricated mushca. The wei…
The Ancient Quimbalete and Mercury Efficiency in Present-Day Small-Scale Gold Processing, Perú
Enigma of Alluvial Gold Mining in Pre-Contact Peru—The Present Is Key to the Past
Peru has produced metals for thousands of years and is the leading gold producer in Latin America today; however, the indigenous mining technology used to produce industrial amounts of gold in pre-contact Peru has thus far been undescribed. Industrial amounts of gold are produced in only two ways: 1) gravity separation/mercury (amalgamation), and 2) cyanide. Therefore, an understanding of present-day gold mining methods is key to understanding go…
Locations of Cinnabar-Mercury Occurrences in Peru
The Huancavelica cinnabar-mercury occurrence is the most well-known, but not the only, cinnabar-mercury occurrence in Peru. Therefore, a compilation of the approximately 20 other cinnabar-mercury occurrences is important in assessing the regional availability of this important mineral and its industrial uses in pre-contact Peru. These include: 1) cinnabar use as an ancient red pigment and, 2) more importantly, retorting cinnabar was an important …
ICP Analyses from the Cinnabar-Mercury Occurrence at Azogues (Loma Guashon), Ecuador
ICP (Inductively Coupled Plasma) analyses of the Cretaceous marine sandstones at the Azogues (Loma Guashon), Ecuador cinnabar-mercury occurrence gave 11 - 113 ppm Hg. However, the ancient Azogues mines have been well documented previously, for example: 1) a 1799 hand drawn map “Plan del Cerro Mineral de Azogue” shows numerous adits; 2) during Colonial time, Cuenca founder, Gil Ramirez Davalos was owner of the mercury mines; 3) in the late 1800s, …
Pre-Columbian Gold Assay Spoons from El Brujo, Perú
A horn spoon is a modern gold prospector’s field assay tool that is used to determine the amount of gold in an alluvial or crushed gold ore sample. The modern horn spoon is ~16 cm long, concave, flared at one end, and is made from a black ox-horn. The rough, black interior of the horn spoon holds and shows the gold “colors” or chispitas. Four Pre-Columbian ceramic spoons recovered from the El Brujo archaeological site in northern Perú are similar…
Amalgamation and Small-Scale Gold Mining at Ancient Sardis, Turkey
In the ancient world gold was mined mainly from alluvial occurrences using gravity methods combined with the use of mercury (amalgamation), a method that is still used today in small-scale alluvial gold mines worldwide. Cyanide, which was first used in the 1880s, is used in large-scale hardrock mines to recover gold, silver, copper, and other metals from porphyry and disseminated ore deposits. Therefore, amalgamation must be considered, or specif…
Looking at a Map Might Help
Contrary to Burger et al. (2016), there is ample evidence of colonial cinnabar mining in southern Ecuador
Three Gold-Bearing Prehispanic Ceramic Fragments from the Supía-Marmato Mining District, Rio Medio Cauca, Colombia
The alluvial environment of the Supía-Marmato mining district, in the Rio Medio Cauca region, Colombia, provided coarse and fine-grained gold that was used for prehispanic gold work and also fine-grained, gold-bearing sediments that were used for ceramic production. Three ceramic fragments, identified as Marrón Inciso—Quimbaya Clasico, were submitted for geochemical analysis in order to determine their elemental composition—the ICP (Inductively C…
Geochemical evidence for the use of lead in Prehispanic metallurgy at El Purgatorio, Casma Valley, Peru
Proyectiles de plomo en el antiguo Perú
Se han encontrado proyectiles de piedra con hondas (warak’as) en varios sitios arqueológicos en el Perú. Esto indica que esta arma fue comúnmente utilizada por sociedades precolombinas. La honda, denominada warak’a o huaraca en quechua, posee un amplio espectro espacial y temporal, siendo documentada desde hace muchos años en el Viejo y Nuevo Mundo y usada aún con fines pastoriles en el Perú rural de hoy. Tanto en el antiguo Perú como en el Viejo…
Antigua fundición de plomo en el sitio inca de Curamba, departamento de Apurímac, Perú
Desde el siglo XVI, el sitio inca de Curamba, ubicado en el departamento de Apurímac, en la sierra sur del Perú, ha sido interpretado como un centro metalúrgico para fundición de plata. Sin embargo, no hay restos u otros indicios del uso de huayras ni tocochimbos, que son estructuras usadas tradicionalmente para la antigua fundición de plata en los Andes. Los ensayos geoquímicos (Inductively Coupled Plasma o Plasma Acoplado Inductivamente) de la …
Amalgamation and small-scale gold mining in the ancient Andes
In 1532, the volume of gold provided by Atahualpa, the Inka king, as ransom for his release from the Spanish was hard evidence for the efficient small-scale gold mining that took place before European contact and the number of gold occurrences in the Andes. At Huancavelica, Perú, mercury occurs as a native metal and as cinnabar [HgS], which was used for pigments, funeral preparations, and retorted to obtain mercury. Using Inductively Coupled Plas…
Mineral pigments at Huaca Tacaynamo (Chan Chan, Peru)
X-ray diffraction analyses of five samples of pigments from a recently excavated mural at the archaeological site of Huaca Tacaynamo, a part of the Chan Chan archaeological complex, northern Peru, show that minerals related to metal occurrences known to have been exploited by ancient Andeans were also used as pigments. These minerals include: atacamite [Cu2Cl(OH3)] for green; azurite [Cu3(CO3)2(OH)2] for blue; calcite [CaCO3] for white; cinnabar …
Coal and Cremation at the Tschudi Burn, Chan Chan, Northern Peru
Analyses of a 20–30 cm thick, completely combusted ash at the 25 × 70 m Tschudi burn at Chan Chan, northern Perú, contain 52–55 wt% SiO 2 , 180–210 ppm zirconium and are consistent with coal ash. Soil geochemistry across the burn showed elevated calcium and phosphorus content, possible evidence for reported human cremation. A calcined, 5 g, 4.5 cm skull fragment recovered from the burn was confirmed as human by protein radioimmunoassay (pRIA). X‐…
Geologic map and cross sections of the Pedregosa Mountains, Cochise County, Arizona
Reconnaissance geologic map of part of McLendon Volcano, Yavapai County, Arizona
Geologic map of the Mule Creek Quadrangle, Grant County, New Mexico
Geologic map of the Mule Creek Quadrangle, Grant County, New Mexico
Looking at a Map Might Help
Contrary to Burger et al. (2016), there is ample evidence of colonial cinnabar mining in southern Ecuador
Geochemical evidence for the use of lead in Prehispanic metallurgy at El Purgatorio, Casma Valley, Peru
Geologic map of the Mule Creek Quadrangle, Grant County, New Mexico
Reconnaissance geologic map of part of McLendon Volcano, Yavapai County, Arizona
Geologic map and cross sections of the Pedregosa Mountains, Cochise County, Arizona
Mineral pigments at Huaca Tacaynamo (Chan Chan, Peru)
X-ray diffraction analyses of five samples of pigments from a recently excavated mural at the archaeological site of Huaca Tacaynamo, a part of the Chan Chan archaeological complex, northern Peru, show that minerals related to metal occurrences known to have been exploited by ancient Andeans were also used as pigments. These minerals include: atacamite [Cu2Cl(OH3)] for green; azurite [Cu3(CO3)2(OH)2] for blue; calcite [CaCO3] for white; cinnabar …
Coal and Cremation at the Tschudi Burn, Chan Chan, Northern Peru
Analyses of a 20–30 cm thick, completely combusted ash at the 25 × 70 m Tschudi burn at Chan Chan, northern Perú, contain 52–55 wt% SiO 2 , 180–210 ppm zirconium and are consistent with coal ash. Soil geochemistry across the burn showed elevated calcium and phosphorus content, possible evidence for reported human cremation. A calcined, 5 g, 4.5 cm skull fragment recovered from the burn was confirmed as human by protein radioimmunoassay (pRIA). X‐…
Amalgamation and small-scale gold mining in the ancient Andes
In 1532, the volume of gold provided by Atahualpa, the Inka king, as ransom for his release from the Spanish was hard evidence for the efficient small-scale gold mining that took place before European contact and the number of gold occurrences in the Andes. At Huancavelica, Perú, mercury occurs as a native metal and as cinnabar [HgS], which was used for pigments, funeral preparations, and retorted to obtain mercury. Using Inductively Coupled Plas…
Antigua fundición de plomo en el sitio inca de Curamba, departamento de Apurímac, Perú
Desde el siglo XVI, el sitio inca de Curamba, ubicado en el departamento de Apurímac, en la sierra sur del Perú, ha sido interpretado como un centro metalúrgico para fundición de plata. Sin embargo, no hay restos u otros indicios del uso de huayras ni tocochimbos, que son estructuras usadas tradicionalmente para la antigua fundición de plata en los Andes. Los ensayos geoquímicos (Inductively Coupled Plasma o Plasma Acoplado Inductivamente) de la …
Proyectiles de plomo en el antiguo Perú
Se han encontrado proyectiles de piedra con hondas (warak’as) en varios sitios arqueológicos en el Perú. Esto indica que esta arma fue comúnmente utilizada por sociedades precolombinas. La honda, denominada warak’a o huaraca en quechua, posee un amplio espectro espacial y temporal, siendo documentada desde hace muchos años en el Viejo y Nuevo Mundo y usada aún con fines pastoriles en el Perú rural de hoy. Tanto en el antiguo Perú como en el Viejo…
Geochemical evidence for the use of lead in Prehispanic metallurgy at El Purgatorio, Casma Valley, Peru
Three Gold-Bearing Prehispanic Ceramic Fragments from the Supía-Marmato Mining District, Rio Medio Cauca, Colombia
The alluvial environment of the Supía-Marmato mining district, in the Rio Medio Cauca region, Colombia, provided coarse and fine-grained gold that was used for prehispanic gold work and also fine-grained, gold-bearing sediments that were used for ceramic production. Three ceramic fragments, identified as Marrón Inciso—Quimbaya Clasico, were submitted for geochemical analysis in order to determine their elemental composition—the ICP (Inductively C…
Pre-Columbian Gold Assay Spoons from El Brujo, Perú
A horn spoon is a modern gold prospector’s field assay tool that is used to determine the amount of gold in an alluvial or crushed gold ore sample. The modern horn spoon is ~16 cm long, concave, flared at one end, and is made from a black ox-horn. The rough, black interior of the horn spoon holds and shows the gold “colors” or chispitas. Four Pre-Columbian ceramic spoons recovered from the El Brujo archaeological site in northern Perú are similar…
Amalgamation and Small-Scale Gold Mining at Ancient Sardis, Turkey
In the ancient world gold was mined mainly from alluvial occurrences using gravity methods combined with the use of mercury (amalgamation), a method that is still used today in small-scale alluvial gold mines worldwide. Cyanide, which was first used in the 1880s, is used in large-scale hardrock mines to recover gold, silver, copper, and other metals from porphyry and disseminated ore deposits. Therefore, amalgamation must be considered, or specif…
Looking at a Map Might Help
Contrary to Burger et al. (2016), there is ample evidence of colonial cinnabar mining in southern Ecuador
ICP Analyses from the Cinnabar-Mercury Occurrence at Azogues (Loma Guashon), Ecuador
ICP (Inductively Coupled Plasma) analyses of the Cretaceous marine sandstones at the Azogues (Loma Guashon), Ecuador cinnabar-mercury occurrence gave 11 - 113 ppm Hg. However, the ancient Azogues mines have been well documented previously, for example: 1) a 1799 hand drawn map “Plan del Cerro Mineral de Azogue” shows numerous adits; 2) during Colonial time, Cuenca founder, Gil Ramirez Davalos was owner of the mercury mines; 3) in the late 1800s, …
Locations of Cinnabar-Mercury Occurrences in Peru
The Huancavelica cinnabar-mercury occurrence is the most well-known, but not the only, cinnabar-mercury occurrence in Peru. Therefore, a compilation of the approximately 20 other cinnabar-mercury occurrences is important in assessing the regional availability of this important mineral and its industrial uses in pre-contact Peru. These include: 1) cinnabar use as an ancient red pigment and, 2) more importantly, retorting cinnabar was an important …
Enigma of Alluvial Gold Mining in Pre-Contact Peru—The Present Is Key to the Past
Peru has produced metals for thousands of years and is the leading gold producer in Latin America today; however, the indigenous mining technology used to produce industrial amounts of gold in pre-contact Peru has thus far been undescribed. Industrial amounts of gold are produced in only two ways: 1) gravity separation/mercury (amalgamation), and 2) cyanide. Therefore, an understanding of present-day gold mining methods is key to understanding go…
The Ancient Quimbalete and Mercury Efficiency in Present-Day Small-Scale Gold Processing, Perú
The Ancient Molinete, Plants, and Mercury Efficiency in Present-Day Artisanal Gold Mining, Northern Perú
The molinete, a smaller version of the quimbalete or Inka mill, was also used to crush gold ore in the ancient Andes and its present-day use, though limited, continues. It consists of a large, movable upper stone, or chungo, and a lower, stationary stone, or muscha, that has a depression to seat the chungo. Each stone may weigh approximately one ton. The worker is seated and rocks the chungo, by foot on the lower, water-lubricated mushca. The wei…
Geology (13 works) · Archaeology (11 works) · Geography (11 works) · Archaeology and ancient environmental studies (10 works) · Mineralogy (9 works) · Metallurgy (7 works) · Chemistry (6 works) · Cinnabar (6 works) · Materials Science (6 works) · Environmental Science (5 works)