Sally A Santen

Biographic Data

ID	7720846
NAME	Sally A Santen
GIVEN NAMES	Sally A
FAMILY NAME	Santen
SIGNATURE	SANTEN S A
AFFILIATIONS	ORCID
ORCID	0000-0002-8327-8002
VERIFIED	Yes
TOTAL WORKS	51
TOTAL CITATIONS	0
AUTHOR COUNT	51
EDITOR COUNT	0
FIRST PUBLICATION YEAR	2019
LATEST PUBLICATION YEAR	2026
H-INDEX	0

Measuring the Master Adaptive Learner
Sally A Santen, Adam Funk et al.ARTICLEMedical Teacher2026
PURPOSE: The Master Adaptive Learner (MAL) is a model describing the collective skills of planning, learning, assessing, and adjusting that may translate into continually improving clinical proficiency. The objective of this study was to develop a MAL assessment instrument to measure these skills. METHOD: 1,427 students completed the 36-item candidate MAL instrument. The authors performed exploratory factor analysis (EFA) on half of the dataset. …
Accelerated 3-Year MD Programs in the United States
Open AccessJoan Cangiarella, Alicia Gonzalez‐Flores et al.ARTICLEAcademic Medicine2025
Accelerated 3-year MD (3YMD) programs have experienced rapid growth in the United States since 2010. In 2015, 8 institutions with 3YMD programs formed the Consortium of Accelerated Medical Pathway Programs (CAMPP). As of 2024, CAMPP has 32 member schools with 3YMD programs, and there have been nearly 1,000 graduates from 3YMD programs who have entered residency, many through directed pathways at the same institution where they attended medical sc…
A “Totally Different Beast”
Benjamin Kinnear, Sally A Santen et al.ARTICLEAcademic Medicine2025
Harnessing the Generative Power of AI to Move Closer to Personalized Medical Education
Laurah Turner, Matthew Kelleher et al.ARTICLEAcademic Medicine2025
Variability in Learner Performance Using the ACGME Harmonized Milestones During the First Year of Postgraduate Training
Open AccessSally A Santen, Michael S Ryan et al.ARTICLEAcademic Medicine2025
Stepping Back
Open AccessRebecca L Toonkel, Arnyce R Pock et al.ARTICLEAcademic Medicine2025
Although most students complete Step 1 before clerkships, some institutions delay the exam until after clerkships. The change to pass/fail grading adds additional complexity that should be considered when deciding about exam timing. Both early and late administration may affect learning outcomes, learner behavior, student well-being, and residency match success. Step 1 completion before clerkships promotes learning outcomes (e.g., integration and…
Understanding resident wellness
Nastassia M Savage, Sally A Santen et al.ARTICLEMedical Teacher2025
Purpose The clinical learning environment (CLE) affects resident physician well-being. This study assessed how aspects of the learning environment affected the level of resident job stress and burnout.Materials and methods Three institutions surveyed residents assessing aspects of the CLE and well-being via anonymous survey in fall of 2020 during COVID. Psychological safety (PS) and perceived organizational support (POS) were used to capture the …
Utilizing natural language processing to analyze student narrative reflections for medical curriculum improvement
Amy L Olex, Adam M Garber et al.ARTICLEMedical Teacher2025
MOTIVATION: Medical curricula improvement is an ongoing process to keep material relevant and improve the student's learning experience to better prepare them for patient care. Many programs utilize end-of-year evaluations, but these frequently have low response rates and lack actionable feedback. We hypothesized that student reflections written during a fourth year Sub-Internship could be used retrospectively to mine additional information as fe…
Using Theory-Informed Group Processes to Make Timeless Promotion Decisions
Open AccessBenjamin Kinnear, Sally A Santen et al.ARTICLEAcademic Medicine2024
Competency-based medical education (CBME) depends on effective programs of assessment to achieve the desired outcomes and goals of training. Residency programs must be able to defend clinical competency committee (CCC) group decisions about learner readiness for practice, including decisions about time-variable resident promotion and graduation. In this article, the authors describe why CCC group decision-making processes should be supported by t…
The Association of Master Adaptive Learning With Less Burnout and More Resilience in Obstetrics and Gynecology Residents
Open AccessSally A Santen, Samara Ginzburg et al.ARTICLEAcademic Medicine2024
Making Use of Natural Language Processing to Better Understand Medical Students’ Self-Assessment of Clinical Skills
Open AccessLaurah Turner, Danielle E Weber et al.ARTICLEAcademic Medicine2024
Precision Education
Open AccessSanjay V Desai, Jesse Burk-Rafel et al.ARTICLEAcademic Medicine2024
The goal of medical education is to produce a physician workforce capable of delivering high-quality equitable care to diverse patient populations and communities. To achieve this aim amidst explosive growth in medical knowledge and increasingly complex medical care, a system of personalized and continuous learning, assessment, and feedback for trainees and practicing physicians is urgently needed. In this perspective, the authors build on prior …
Are They Prepared? Comparing Intern Milestone Performance of Accelerated 3-Year and 4-Year Medical Graduates
Open AccessSally A Santen, Sandra Yingling et al.ARTICLEAcademic Medicine2024
The Next Era of Assessment
Open AccessDaniel J Schumacher, Benjamin Kinnear et al.ARTICLEAcademic Medicine2024
Previous eras of assessment in medical education have been defined by how assessment is done, from knowledge exams popularized in the 1960s to the emergence of work-based assessment in the 1990s to current efforts to integrate multiple types and sources of performance data through programmatic assessment. Each of these eras was a response to why assessment was performed (e.g., assessing medical knowledge with exams; assessing communication, profe…
Learner Assessment and Program Evaluation
Open AccessJudee Richardson, Sally A Santen et al.ARTICLEAcademic Medicine2024
Precision education (PE) systematically leverages data and advanced analytics to inform educational interventions that, in turn, promote meaningful learner outcomes. PE does this by incorporating analytic results back into the education continuum through continuous feedback cycles. These data-informed sequences of planning, learning, assessing, and adjusting foster competence and adaptive expertise. PE cycles occur at individual (micro), program …
Maintaining Community During Disruption
Open AccessVictoria Stagg Elliott, Maya M Hammoud et al.ARTICLEAcademic Medicine2024
When the COVID-19 pandemic emerged early in 2020, the American Medical Association’s (AMA) Accelerating Change in Medical Education Consortium focused on maintaining its community of 37 medical schools and 11 graduate medical education projects along with the core substance of its work. The initial response was to cancel events and reduce the workload of consortium members, but it quickly became clear that the consortium needed additional strateg…
How well do workplace‐based assessments support summative entrustment decisions? A multi‐institutional generalisability study
Open AccessMichael S Ryan, Katherine A Gielissen et al.ARTICLEMedical Education2024
Accelerated 3YMD programs
Open AccessCatherine L Coe, Sally A Santen et al.ARTICLEMedical Education Online2024
Accelerated three-year medical pathway programs have grown significantly over the last decade, consistent with an overall effort to redesign medical curricula, reduce debt and contribute to the workforce
Obstetrics and Gynecology Resident Well-Being
Open AccessAbigail Ford Winkel, Helen Kang Morgan et al.ARTICLEAcademic Medicine2023
Purpose: The aim of this study is to explore the well-being of obstetrics and gynecology (OB/GYN) residents and to determine whether patterns observed among trainees have persisted despite changes both within and outside of the clinical learning environment. Method: An observational cross-sectional study of residents in OB/GYN taking the 2022 national in-training examination was performed using an online survey. Respondents provided demographic i…
Understanding Academic Self-Concept and Performance in Medical Education
Open AccessKelly M Harrell, Meagan Rawls et al.ARTICLEAcademic Medicine2023
So You Found Inequities in Clerkship Grades? How to Talk With Students and Community Members About Your Findings
Open AccessTonya L Fancher, Judith Brenner et al.ARTICLEAcademic Medicine2023
Purpose: The Coalition for Physician Accountability and the Association of American Medical Colleges (AAMC) are encouraging medical schools to examine their patterns of clinical clerkship grade distribution and selection to honor societies, such as Alpha Omega Alpha (AΩA) and the Gold Humanism Honor Society, based on race, ethnicity, gender identity/expression, sexual identity/orientation, visa status, ability, and location (e.g., satellite, clin…
Supporting Medical Education Innovation
Open AccessSally A Santen, Eric Van Rite et al.ARTICLEAcademic Medicine2023
Transition to Residency
Open AccessYoung-Shin Park, Michael S Ryan et al.ARTICLEAcademic Medicine2023
How Does Timeless Training Impact Resident Motivation for Learning, Assessment, and Feedback? Evaluating a Competency-Based Time-Variable Training Pilot
Open AccessBenjamin Kinnear, Sally A Santen et al.ARTICLEAcademic Medicine2023
A mixed methods exploration of the emergence of goal orientation in medical students’ individualized learning plans
Ashlie S Tseng, Cherie Edwards et al.ARTICLEMedical Teacher2023
PURPOSE: Goal orientation (GO) describes an individual's approach to different achievement situations. Understanding the motivations and approach to achieving goals of medical students is vital with the increasing emphasis on self-directed learning. The purpose of this study was to identify themes in self-improvement reflections that relate to each GO dimension (learning, performance-prove, and performance-avoid). METHODS: A sequential explanator…

Coaching in undergraduate medical education
Open AccessMargaret Wolff, Maya M Hammoud et al.ARTICLEMedical Education Online2019
Background : Evidence to support coaching in medical education has grown over the past decade leading educators to search for resources to aid the development of their own coaching programs. A sample of medical schools in the USA were surveyed to describe coaching programs to assist other institutions in the development and implementation of programs. Methods : Participants representing 32 medical schools attending a coaching conference in Octobe…
Identifying and Supporting Students to Prevent USMLE Step 1 Failures When Testing Follows Clerkships
Aubrie Swan Sein, Michelle Daniel et al.ARTICLEAcademic Medicine2020
Several schools have moved the United States Medical Licensing Examination Step 1 exam after core clerkships, and others are considering this change. Delaying Step 1 may improve Step 1 performance and lower Step 1 failure rates. Schools considering moving Step 1 are particularly concerned about late identification of struggling students and late Step failures, which can be particularly problematic due to reduced time to remediate and accumulated …
Comparison of Male and Female Resident Milestone Assessments During Emergency Medicine Residency Training
Open AccessSally A Santen, Kenji Yamazaki et al.ARTICLEAcademic Medicine2020
PURPOSE: A previous study found that milestone ratings at the end of training were higher for male than for female residents in emergency medicine (EM). However, that study was restricted to a sample of 8 EM residency programs and used individual faculty ratings from milestone reporting forms that were designed for use by the program's Clinical Competency Committee (CCC). The objective of this study was to investigate whether similar results woul…
Emerging From the Covid-19 Crisis With a Stronger Health Care Workforce
Alan Dow, Alan W Dow et al.ARTICLEAcademic Medicine2020
The COVID-19 pandemic has highlighted the limitations of the current health care workforce. As health care workers across the globe have been overwhelmed by the crisis, oversight entities and training programs have sought to loosen regulations to support ongoing care. Notably, however, workforce challenges preceded the current crisis. Now may be the time to address these underlying workforce challenges and emerge from the COVID-19 pandemic with a…
A Responsible Educational Handover
Helen Kang Morgan, George C Mejicano et al.ARTICLEAcademic Medicine2020
An important tenet of competency-based medical education is that the educational continuum should be seamless. The transition from undergraduate medical education (UME) to graduate medical education (GME) is far from seamless, however. Current practices around this transition drive students to focus on appearing to be competitively prepared for residency. A communication at the completion of UME—an educational handover—would encourage students to…
Effects of Moving the United States Medical Licensing Examination Step 1 After Core Clerkships on Step 2 Clinical Knowledge Performance
Daniel Jurich, Sally A Santen et al.ARTICLEAcademic Medicine2020
PURPOSE: To investigate the effect of a change in the United States Medical Licensing Examination Step 1 timing on Step 2 Clinical Knowledge (CK) scores, the effect of lag time on Step 2 CK performance, and the relationship of incoming Medical College Admission Test (MCAT) score to Step 2 CK performance pre and post change. METHOD: Four schools that moved Step 1 after core clerkships between academic years 2008-2009 and 2017-2018 were analyzed. S…
The educators’ experience
Lisa Auerbach, Sally A Santen et al.ARTICLEMedical Teacher2020
BACKGROUND: The Master Adaptive Learner (MAL) theoretical framework describes an integrated approach to learning that combines features of educational theory on self-regulated learning and aspects of quality improvement. In order to develop MAL students, it is important to pay attention to the learning environment. PURPOSE: needed to promote the development of master adaptive learners. METHODS: Thematic analysis of reports by medical educators wh…
The Development of a Set of Coaching Competencies for Medical Education Using a Modified Delphi Approach
Nicole M Deiorio, Margaret Wolff et al.ARTICLEAcademic Medicine2021
Purpose: Coaching is emerging as a way to support learners’ academic, professional identity, and well-being goals in medical education. 1,2 To date, there is scant literature on ways to assess coaches and evaluate coaching programs so that the benefits of coaching can be quantified and investments into coaching justified. 3 One piece of this gap is to identify the core competencies of a coach. The International Coaching Federation (ICF) has publi…
Strategies From 11 U.S. Medical Schools for Integrating Basic Science Into Core Clerkships
Michelle Daniel, Gail Morrison et al.ARTICLEAcademic Medicine2021
Calls for curricular reform in medical schools and enhanced integration of basic and clinical science have resulted in a shift toward preclerkship curricula that enhance the clinical relevance of foundational science instruction and provide students with earlier immersion in the clinical environment. These reforms have resulted in shortened preclerkship curricula, yet the promise of integrated basic science education into clerkships has not been …
A Question of Scale? Comparison of Generalizability in Ottawa and Chen Scales When Used to Formulate Ad Hoc Entrustment Decisions for the Core EPAs
Michael S Ryan, Rebecca Khamishon et al.ARTICLEAcademic Medicine2021
Purpose: Assessment of the Core Entrustable Professional Activities (Core EPAs) is based on observations of supervisors throughout a medical student’s progression toward entrustment. 1,2 In our previous work, we examined performance of the Ottawa Clinic Assessment Tool (Ottawa) 3 when used to measure medical student performance of the Core EPAs in the workplace setting. 4 The findings from that study demonstrated poor generalizability of the Otta…
The AMA Graduate Profile
Jesse Burk-Rafel, Marina Marin et al.ARTICLEAcademic Medicine2021
Purpose: Medical schools aim to train competent physicians that meet the health care needs of society. Yet beyond the results of the residency match, medical schools often do not know what kind of workforce they are creating or how their graduates perform in practice. 1 Here, we describe the creation of a personalized Graduate Profile for 32 medical schools in the American Medical Association (AMA) Accelerating Change in Medical Education grant c…
Generalizability of the Ottawa Surgical Competency Operating Room Evaluation (O-SCORE) Scale to Assess Medical Student Performance on Core EPAs in the Workplace
Michael S Ryan, Alicia Richards et al.ARTICLEAcademic Medicine2021
PURPOSE: Assessment of the Core Entrustable Professional Activities for Entering Residency (Core EPAs) requires direct observation of learners in the workplace to support entrustment decisions. The purpose of this study was to examine the internal structure validity evidence of the Ottawa Surgical Competency Operating Room Evaluation (O-SCORE) scale when used to assess medical student performance in the Core EPAs across clinical clerkships. METHO…
Coaching a Learner in Medical Education
Nicole M Deiorio, Kenneth W Foster et al.ARTICLEAcademic Medicine2021
The Accelerating Change in Medical Education Consortium
Kimberly D Lomis, Sally A Santen et al.ARTICLEAcademic Medicine2021
The American Medical Association’s (AMA’s) Accelerating Change in Medical Education (ACE) initiative, launched in 2013 to foster advancements in undergraduate medical education, has led to the development and scaling of innovations influencing the full continuum of medical training. Initial grants of $1 million were awarded to 11 U.S. medical schools, with 21 schools joining the consortium in 2016 at a lower funding level. Almost one-fifth of all…
Exploring the Association Between USMLE Scores and ACGME Milestone Ratings
Open AccessStanley J Hamstra, Monica M Cuddy et al.ARTICLEAcademic Medicine2021
PURPOSE: The United States Medical Licensing Examination (USMLE) sequence and the Accreditation Council for Graduate Medical Education (ACGME) milestones represent 2 major components along the continuum of assessment from undergraduate through graduate medical education. This study examines associations between USMLE Step 1 and Step 2 Clinical Knowledge (CK) scores and ACGME emergency medicine (EM) milestone ratings. METHOD: In February 2019, sub…
Triple Challenge
Victoria Stagg Elliott, Jasmyne Jackson et al.ARTICLEAcademic Medicine2021
Medical education and the health system must address challenges that, despite significant effort, seem unsolvable. Health systems science (HSS)—the fundamental understanding of how care is delivered, how health professionals work together to deliver that care, and how the health system can improve patient care and health care delivery—is increasingly being recognized as a potential source of solutions to these challenges. In this article, the aut…
Evaluating the Reliability and Validity Evidence of the Rime (Reporter–Interpreter–Manager–Educator) Framework for Summative Assessments Across Clerkships
Michael S Ryan, Bennett Lee et al.ARTICLEAcademic Medicine2021
PURPOSE: The ability of medical schools to accurately and reliably assess medical student clinical performance is paramount. The RIME (reporter-interpreter-manager-educator) schema was originally developed as a synthetic and intuitive assessment framework for internal medicine clerkships. Validity evidence of this framework has not been rigorously evaluated outside of internal medicine. This study examined factors contributing to variability in R…
Clerkship Grading and the U.S. Economy
Michael S Ryan, E Marshall Brooks et al.ARTICLEAcademic Medicine2021
Clerkship grades (like money) are a social construct that function as the currency through which value exchanges in medical education are negotiated between the system’s various stakeholders. They provide a widely recognizable and efficient medium through which learner development can be assessed, tracked, compared, and demonstrated and are commonly used to make decisions regarding progression, distinction, and selection for residency. However, s…
What is the association between student well‐being and high‐stakes examination scores
Open AccessSeetha U Monrad, Margaret Wolff et al.ARTICLEMedical Education2021
What faculty write versus what students see? Perspectives on multiple-choice questions using Bloom’s taxonomy
Seetha U Monrad, Nikki L Bibler Zaidi et al.ARTICLEMedical Teacher2021
BACKGROUND: Using revised Bloom's taxonomy, some medical educators assume they can write multiple choice questions (MCQs) that specifically assess higher (analyze, apply) versus lower-order (recall) learning. The purpose of this study was to determine whether three key stakeholder groups (students, faculty, and education assessment experts) assign MCQs the same higher- or lower-order level. METHODS: In Phase 1, stakeholders' groups assigned 90 MC…
Beyond advising and mentoring
Margaret Wolff, Nicole M Deiorio et al.ARTICLEMedical Teacher2021
BACKGROUND: Coaching supports academic goals, professional development and wellbeing in medical education. Scant literature exists on training and assessing coaches and evaluating coaching programs. To begin filling this gap, we created a set of coach competencies for medical education using a modified Delphi approach. METHODS: An expert team assembled, comprised of seven experts in the field of coaching. A modified Delphi approach was utilized t…
Incidence of resident mistreatment in the learning environment across three institutions
Maya M Hammoud, Nital Appelbaum et al.ARTICLEMedical Teacher2021
INTRODUCTION: Mistreatment in the learning environment is associated with negative outcomes for trainees. While the Association of American Medical Colleges (AAMC) annual Graduation Questionnaire (GQ) has collected medical student reports of mistreatment for a decade, there is not a similar nationally benchmarked survey for residents. The objective of this study is to explore the prevalence of resident experiences with mistreatment. METHODS: Resi…
Workplace-Based Entrustment Scales for the Core EPAs
Michael S Ryan, Asra R Khan et al.ARTICLEAcademic Medicine2022
PURPOSE: In undergraduate medical education (UME), competency-based medical education has been operationalized through the 13 Core Entrustable Professional Activities for Entering Residency (Core EPAs). Direct observation in the workplace using rigorous, valid, reliable measures is required to inform summative decisions about graduates' readiness for residency. The purpose of this study is to investigate the validity evidence of 2 proposed workpl…
A Question of Scale? Generalizability of the Ottawa and Chen Scales to Render Entrustment Decisions for the Core EPAs in the Workplace
Michael S Ryan, Rebecca Khamishon et al.ARTICLEAcademic Medicine2022
PURPOSE: Assessments of the Core Entrustable Professional Activities (Core EPAs) are based on observations of supervisors throughout a medical student's progression toward entrustment. The purpose of this study was to compare generalizability of scores from 2 entrustment scales: the Ottawa Surgical Competency Operating Room Evaluation (Ottawa) scale and an undergraduate medical education supervisory scale proposed by Chen and colleagues (Chen). A…
Competency-based medical education across the continuum
Michael S Ryan, William Iobst et al.ARTICLEMedical Teacher2022
INTRODUCTION: Competency-based medical education (CBME) provides a framework for describing learner progression throughout training. However, specific approaches to CBME implementation vary widely across educational settings. Alignment between various methods used across the continuum is critical to support transitions and assess learner performance. The purpose of this study was to investigate alignment between CBME frameworks used in undergradu…