Paul Stubbs
Dados Biográficos
| ID | 192928 |
|---|---|
| NOME | Paul Stubbs |
| PRENOMES | Paul |
| SOBRENOME | Stubbs |
| ASSINATURA | STUBBS P |
| AFILIAÇÕES | Institute of Economics Zagreb |
| ORCID | 0000-0002-0318-4306 |
| VERIFICADO | Sim |
| TOTAL DE OBRAS | 63 |
| TOTAL DE CITAÇÕES | 186 |
| TOTAL COMO AUTOR | 61 |
| TOTAL COMO EDITOR | 2 |
| PRIMEIRO ANO DE PUBLICAÇÃO | 1984 |
| ANO MAIS RECENTE DE PUBLICAÇÃO | 2025 |
| ÍNDICE H | 8 |
Conjunctural municipalism and the struggle for Zagreb
There is renewed interest in conjunctural approaches within urban studies, human geography and beyond to help interpret the troubles of the political present. Moves have been made to specify and systematise a methodological remit for conjunctural analysis, yet there is a risk of losing the political impulse motivating such approaches. As such, this article brings together different intellectual and political currents informing conjunctural analys…
Revisiting making policy move
The co-authored book Making Policy Move (Clarke, Bainton, Lendvai and Stubbs 2015) was an attempt to apply insights from theories of translation and assemblage to the field of policy studies. The mantra ?when policy moves it is always translated? was based, as much if not more, on postcolonial and decolonial theories as it was on the ?interpretive turn? in policy studies and on the idiosyncrasies of Actor Network Theory and the work of Deleuze an…
The Anthropology of Policy
The anthropology of policy as a field emerged in the 1990s in recognition of the need to understand and critically interrogate policies as important sites of classification, disciplining, and production of order and change. The anthropology of policy has developed as a critical strand challenging mainstream policy studies, public administration, and political science by insisting that the work of policy is always political. Policy worlds are seen…
Croatia’s Uneasy First Decade in the European Union
Croatia celebrated a decade of membership in the European Union by joining the euro currency and the Schengen Area of free movement on January 1, 2023. At the same time, however, the country is struggling with the economic, social, and political consequences of its semi-peripheral status. A series of reform challenges remain unsolved, including the continued dominance of clientelistic networks. Amid a set of overlapping crises, from the global fi…
China, Yugoslavia, and socialist worldmaking
Beyond crony capitalism
In this article, we provide a critique of the concept of crony capitalism as the dominant explanation of change in economies in transition-based as it is on an idealized technocratic representation of 'free markets'. We do this through an analysis of the fall of the Croatian company Agrokor, one of the most important companies in post-socialist Southeast Europe. The Agrokor case allows for an understanding of state-economy restructurings in times…
Socialist Yugoslavia and the Non-Aligned Movement
In September 1961, Socialist Yugoslavia formally established a partnership with states in the Global South called the Non-Aligned Movement (NAM). Socialist Yugoslavia and the Non-Aligned Movement understands the NAM as a site for transnational cultural exchange, and explores the movement’s decolonial alternatives to global inequalities
Le « Yougocentrisme » et l’étude du mouvement des non-alignés
Étudier le mouvement des non-alignés (MNA) et, en particulier, appréhender le rôle complexe et contradictoire qu’y a joué la Yougoslavie socialiste, implique de conjuguer le socialisme et le décolonial. Toute compréhension critique de la relation entre la Yougoslavie socialiste et le MNA doit tenir compte d’un ensemble de « paradoxes, contradictions et antinomies » lorsqu’il s’agit d’explorer les divers imaginaires sociaux, économiques, politique…
Towards a Global Social Policy Otherwise
In this text, we argue for critical reflexivity regarding ‘global social policy studies’, focusing on the pitfalls of forms of historical presentism and Eurocentrism, not least in terms of a profound silence about colonialism, culminating in a ‘view from above or from nowhere’. We explore the importance of historical legacies of historical socialist worldbuilding projects and the complexities of so-called ‘transition’ in liminal, peripheral, spac…
Colonialism, Racism, and Eastern Europe
This essay is written in response to Böröcz’s (2021) essay on race in Europe
Authoritarian Neoliberalism, Radical Conservatism and Social Policy within the European Union
Exploring political and social policy developments in Croatia, Hungary and Poland, three EU member states, this article addresses the hegemonic position of authoritarianism, populism, conservatism and neoliberalism, albeit articulated differently in each state. All three countries are marked by modes of governmentality that combine heteronormative familialism, repatriarchialization, nationalism, ethnicized demographic renewal and anti‐immigrant s…
Revisiting Social Policy and Socialism
Notes from the Section Leadership
Combining Social Policy and Development Studies
Expertise and the moral economies of austerity
At the height of the Greek debt crisis in June 2015, Slovak Finance Minister Peter Kažimir tweeted that the Greek government had to “stop politicising the issue” (@KazimirPeter, 19 June 2015). Appe
Occupying Liminal Spaces in Post-Conflict Social Welfare Reform? Local Professionals and International Organisations in Bosnia and Herzegovina
This article presents the findings from a small-scale, exploratory, qualitative study on the perceptions of local managers working for international organisations involved in social welfare reform in Bosnia and Herzegovina, a post-conflict society. The findings explore the nature of the involvement of international organisations in reform efforts during and after the war, characterised by the development of a parallel welfare system, imported und…
The Return of the Political and the Struggle for a New Urban Commons
Slow, slow, quick, quick, slow
This article addresses the temporality of politics and policy, examining the hegemonic temporality of austerity discourses and practices and the social role of knowledge and expertise in finance capitalism. An overview of conceptualisations of “time” and “temporality” in critical social science and critical policy studies is followed by a non-determinist exploration of the temporalities of expertise and austerity. The example of Greek Government-…
In memoriam
Social Inequalities and Discontent in Yugoslav Socialism
Introduction In 1974, the Parliament of the Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia adopted the Law on Vocational Education, marking the beginning of what would arguably be the most comprehensive education reform in the country’s history. The reform was part of a broader transformation of the Yugoslav federation that began with the constitutional amendments in 1971 and culminated in the adoption of a new Constitution in 1974 (cf. Dimitrijević 20…
Notes from the Section Leadership
Making policy move
Responding to the increasing interest in the movement of policies between places, sites and settings, this timely book presents a critical alternative to approaches centred on ideas of policy transfer, dissemination or learning. Written by the key people in the field, it argues that treating policy as an active process of ‘translation’, in which policies are interpreted, inflected and re-worked as they change location, is of critical importance f…
Global social governance. Themes and prospects
Rethinking Clientelism, Governance and Citizenship in Social Welfare
Recent work on ‘clientelism’ has sought to address the concept in terms of a broad set of practices in the context of asymmetrical distributional, governance and citizenship relations. Social welfare has, increasingly, been seen as a key site of clientelism in which claims making, akin to the capturing of institutions, resources and services by certain groups, is traded for the political advantage of particular elites (Roniger, 2004). The concept…
Decolonial communism, democracy and the commons’
Assemblages, Translation, and Intermediaries in South East Europe
International and transnational processes pose distinctive challenges to the traditional boundaries and conceptual frameworks of the discipline of social policy. International actors can no longer simply be ‘added on’ to traditional national studies. Rather, a new vocabulary and epistemology is needed to capture the complexity and liminality of the encounters between actors, sites, discourses, scales and contexts. In this text, based on empirical…
Global social policy studies
This article reviews the conceptual and analytical contribution of one strand of 'global social policy studies' since the mid-1990s. It outlines some of the strengths and weaknesses of the core conceptual basis of the approach acknowledging that the theoretical aspects have remained more implicit than explicit in many core texts. The article advances the case for using the 'Agency, Structure, Institution and Discourse' (ASID) approach as a framew…
Globalisation, memory and welfare regimes in transition
Processes of transnational policy transfers are of immense importance in understanding new forms of the reproduction of relations and discourses of power, and of memory and forgetfulness, within particular social welfare regimes. Transnational advice and policy transfers appear particularly unsuited to the need to address the complexities of the ways in which welfare subjects interact with welfare regimes which seek to organise their lives, a the…
Authoritarian Neoliberalism, Radical Conservatism and Social Policy within the European Union
Exploring political and social policy developments in Croatia, Hungary and Poland, three EU member states, this article addresses the hegemonic position of authoritarianism, populism, conservatism and neoliberalism, albeit articulated differently in each state. All three countries are marked by modes of governmentality that combine heteronormative familialism, repatriarchialization, nationalism, ethnicized demographic renewal and anti‐immigrant s…
Citizenship and Social Welfare in Croatia
This article addresses clientelism as a complex structure impacting on social welfare in the context of transition, war, new nation-state building and authoritarian populist political settlements. The paper explores the development of clientelistic welfare in Croatia through an examination of captured and categorical distributional effects, the dominance of nationality over territorial-based citizenship claims, and the politicisation of the natur…
International Non-State Actors and Social Development Policy
This article focuses on two broad groups of actors, international non-governmental organizations (INGOs) and international consultancy companies (ICCs), and situates them within wider trends in aid and development policies. In the context of a neo-liberal policy agenda, many leading INGOs reorganized so that they became closer to emerging ICCs, as consulting, outsourcing and subcontracting became key features of aid and development policy. Throug…
International Actors and Social Policy Development in Bosnia-Herzegovina
This article outlines the current development of aspects of social policy in Bosnia- Herzegovina, paying particular attention to the roles of diverse international actors. Bosnia-Herzegovina is seen as an example of a 'new feudalist' social formation in which the common citizenship model of 'normal' welfare regimes does not apply as a result of: (a) sepa ratist ethnicized claims and loyalties and (b) the fragmentation and multiplication of pol it…
Crime, Localities and the Multi-Agency Approach
The ‘multi-agency’ approach to crime prevention has received considerable attention in recent years. This paper examines both theoretical and practical aspects of multi-agency work, in the light of research conducted over two years in a small number of neighbourhoods in inner London and a Lancashire town. Two contrasting forms of conventional understanding of the multi-agency approach—the ‘benevolent’ as against the ‘conspiratorial’ thesis—are ex…
Slow, slow, quick, quick, slow
This article addresses the temporality of politics and policy, examining the hegemonic temporality of austerity discourses and practices and the social role of knowledge and expertise in finance capitalism. An overview of conceptualisations of “time” and “temporality” in critical social science and critical policy studies is followed by a non-determinist exploration of the temporalities of expertise and austerity. The example of Greek Government-…
Croatian Social Policy
This article outlines the differences and commonalities between social policy developments in Croatia and those in Central Europe. In Croatia, issues such as national identities and the redefinition of citizenship, war, state‐building and crisis management have produced a complex mix of statist centralization and parallelism of welfare actors at the central and local level. While subject both to neo‐liberal pressures to privatize provision, and l…
Occupying Liminal Spaces in Post-Conflict Social Welfare Reform? Local Professionals and International Organisations in Bosnia and Herzegovina
This article presents the findings from a small-scale, exploratory, qualitative study on the perceptions of local managers working for international organisations involved in social welfare reform in Bosnia and Herzegovina, a post-conflict society. The findings explore the nature of the involvement of international organisations in reform efforts during and after the war, characterised by the development of a parallel welfare system, imported und…
E uropeanization, Welfare and Variegated Austerity Capitalisms – H ungary and C roatia
This article focuses on the implications of understanding ‘ E uropeanization’ as a complex, dynamic and troubled translation process. It discusses post‐communist welfare in the context of variegated forms of austerity capitalism in the EU . In particular, the complex relationships between modalities of welfare, the uneven development of neo‐liberalisms and the multi‐scalar restructuring of welfare assemblages, are discussed in the context of the …
Negotiating the Transnational Politics of Social Work in Post-Conflict and Transition Contexts
Based on the pre-war, war and post-war experiences of social work and social welfare reform in south-east Europe, particularly the former Yugoslavia, the authors reflect on the reasons for some of the paradoxes regarding the politicisation of social work over the past two decades, given the centrality of political factors in both the conflict and post-conflict environments. The text explores the often neglected history of social work and social w…
Políticas como tradução
This article explores some of the implications of the development of an anthropology or ethnography of the transnational dimensions of policies.The fi rst part explains the basic conceptual apparatus, in terms of policies as a generator of meanings.The second part examines policies as translation and explores its implications in terms of the transnationalization of the policies and, in particular, it seeks to contrast the translation of policies …
CCT as Policy Translation
NGO Work with forced migrants in Croatia
The independent post‐Yugoslav country of Croatia has faced a conjunction of war, mass forced migration and post‐communist/post‐socialist transition which defies adequate analysis by a single discipline, much less the ‘technicism’ of traditional ‘refugee studies’. Based on three years of ‘social praxis’ in Croatia ‐ the author served as a volunteer in a refugee camp, working with grassroots NGOs, and as a ‘professional’ researcher examining NGO co…
Beyond crony capitalism
In this article, we provide a critique of the concept of crony capitalism as the dominant explanation of change in economies in transition-based as it is on an idealized technocratic representation of 'free markets'. We do this through an analysis of the fall of the Croatian company Agrokor, one of the most important companies in post-socialist Southeast Europe. The Agrokor case allows for an understanding of state-economy restructurings in times…
Expertise and the moral economies of austerity
At the height of the Greek debt crisis in June 2015, Slovak Finance Minister Peter Kažimir tweeted that the Greek government had to “stop politicising the issue” (@KazimirPeter, 19 June 2015). Appe
Reflections on International Actors and the Making of Social Policy in Croatia
Baveci se ulogom međunarodnih aktera u tri kljucna trenutka u razvoju socijalne politike u Hrvatskoj poslije stjecanja neovisnosti, ovaj clanak poima socijalne reforme kao složene interaktivne procese u kojima su naslijeđa i konteksti bitni. Nepovjerenje koje je rezultat implicitne socijalne politike u kontekstu novog ratovima uvjetovanog humanitarizma tijekom ratova, jos vise produbljeno zbog problema vezanih uz projekte reforme kojima se upravl…
Virtual Diaspora
This article, concentrating on contemporary Croatia, explores the role of computer-mediated communication in new relationships between the homeland at war and diaspora. Computer mediated diasporic public spheres are discussed as forms of creative imaginings of a national space from diverse global sites. The text is critical of any suggestion that diasporic identifications are able to be read off, simplistically, from dominant forms of homeland na…
Conflict and Co-Operation in the Virtual Community
This article focuses on the use of computer-mediated communication (CMC) during the wars of the Yugoslav succession, through three case studies of particular eMail networks, discussion groups and bulletin boards: zamir; APC/Yugo/Antiwar; and the Soc/Culture/Croatia and Soc/Culture/Yugoslavia newsgroups. The text addresses the relationship between 'real' and 'virtual' communities and looks, in particular, at the role of eMail as a tool for social,…
Nevladine organizacije, ulaganje sredstava i socijalno blagostanje
Ovaj clanak zasnovan je na istraživanju tzv. nevladinog sektora u Hrvatskoj i Sloveniji i razmatra ucinke pojedinih modela financiranja neprofitnih nevladinih dobrotvornih organizacija. Zakljucak je da mnoge nevladine organizacije osjecaju tzv. „krizu usmjerenog financiranja“ kojeg su posljedica određeni problemi i u razvoju servisa i usluga
Towards a Global Social Policy Otherwise
In this text, we argue for critical reflexivity regarding ‘global social policy studies’, focusing on the pitfalls of forms of historical presentism and Eurocentrism, not least in terms of a profound silence about colonialism, culminating in a ‘view from above or from nowhere’. We explore the importance of historical legacies of historical socialist worldbuilding projects and the complexities of so-called ‘transition’ in liminal, peripheral, spac…
Colonialism, Racism, and Eastern Europe
This essay is written in response to Böröcz’s (2021) essay on race in Europe
In memoriam
The employment of black social workers
Crime, community and the multi-agency approach
A dangerous consensus is emerging on the desirability of a 'multi-agency' approach to community crime problems. In this article, the recent report of an inquiry into the Broadwater Farm Estate is criticised. Behind an apparently radical, oppositional stance lies a simplistic approach to 'community' , crime, and policing and 'the multi-agency approach
A child centred practice? Multi-agency approaches to child sexual abuse
In this article we suggest that the multi-agency approach to child sexual abuse may not be the unproblematic panacea claimed by many of its advocates. Moreover, there is no universally applied criteria for joint work; practice varies considerably between localities. We have identified some crucial differences in working practices and have concluded that the ones providing the most 'child centred' approach have been those in which professionally l…
Crime, Localities and the Multi-Agency Approach
The ‘multi-agency’ approach to crime prevention has received considerable attention in recent years. This paper examines both theoretical and practical aspects of multi-agency work, in the light of research conducted over two years in a small number of neighbourhoods in inner London and a Lancashire town. Two contrasting forms of conventional understanding of the multi-agency approach—the ‘benevolent’ as against the ‘conspiratorial’ thesis—are ex…
Child centred practice in sexual abuse
This article is a contribution to debates about the meaning of child centred practice with children who have been sexually abused. It is argued that main grade social workers have a major input to make to these debates. It is important to question expert led certainties in sexual abuse and to address the complex politics of sexual abuse work. A distinction is made here between child centred practice, built upon valuing and respecting children, an…
The Children Act 1989
This article attempts to examine the Children Act from an anti-racist perspective. The argument is that the Act represents a response both to new right criticisms of child care practice as well as accommodating some aspects of black and anti-racist pressure. Whilst the Act does little, in and of itself, to challenge oppressive outcomes for black children and families, it offers some important spaces in which to struggle
Globalizacija, postkomunizam i socijalna politika
Ovaj clanak izvjestava o istraživanju globalizacije socijalne politike koja je u tijeku u Hrvatskoj, a tice se sirih istraživanja razvoja socijalne politike u postkomunistickoj Srednjoj i Istocnoj Europi i bivsem Sovjetskom Savezu. Brojne specificne teme pojavile su se u Hrvatskoj u okolnostima ratova i prisilne migracije. Autori određuju deset podrucja za daljnje istraživanje: Intervencija međunarodne zajednice, Uloga inozemnih NVO (NGO – nongov…
Sunflowers of hope. Some issues in social work with refugees and displaced persons in Croatia
This article describes the work of ‘Suncokret’, a Non-Governmental Organisation working in refugee camps in Croatia. The focus is on the history, philosophy and objectives of ‘Suncokret’ and situates them in a broader political context. In the process, some issues concerning the provision of social work for vulnerable communities are addressed more generally
Nevladine organizacije, ulaganje sredstava i socijalno blagostanje
Ovaj clanak zasnovan je na istraživanju tzv. nevladinog sektora u Hrvatskoj i Sloveniji i razmatra ucinke pojedinih modela financiranja neprofitnih nevladinih dobrotvornih organizacija. Zakljucak je da mnoge nevladine organizacije osjecaju tzv. „krizu usmjerenog financiranja“ kojeg su posljedica određeni problemi i u razvoju servisa i usluga
NGO Work with forced migrants in Croatia
The independent post‐Yugoslav country of Croatia has faced a conjunction of war, mass forced migration and post‐communist/post‐socialist transition which defies adequate analysis by a single discipline, much less the ‘technicism’ of traditional ‘refugee studies’. Based on three years of ‘social praxis’ in Croatia ‐ the author served as a volunteer in a refugee camp, working with grassroots NGOs, and as a ‘professional’ researcher examining NGO co…
Ethnicity, forced migration and psychosocial work in Croatia
This article outlines the development of psycho-social work with refugees and displaced persons in Croatia, in the context of war and large-scale forced migration. The article, which is based upon original research on refugees and displaced persons in Croatia, considers the dominance of ethnicized nationalism within Croatia, examines the role of global agencies and how psychosocial programmes influence aspects of ethnicity. It ends with some reco…
International Actors and Social Policy Development in Bosnia-Herzegovina
This article outlines the current development of aspects of social policy in Bosnia- Herzegovina, paying particular attention to the roles of diverse international actors. Bosnia-Herzegovina is seen as an example of a 'new feudalist' social formation in which the common citizenship model of 'normal' welfare regimes does not apply as a result of: (a) sepa ratist ethnicized claims and loyalties and (b) the fragmentation and multiplication of pol it…
Conflict and Co-Operation in the Virtual Community
This article focuses on the use of computer-mediated communication (CMC) during the wars of the Yugoslav succession, through three case studies of particular eMail networks, discussion groups and bulletin boards: zamir; APC/Yugo/Antiwar; and the Soc/Culture/Croatia and Soc/Culture/Yugoslavia newsgroups. The text addresses the relationship between 'real' and 'virtual' communities and looks, in particular, at the role of eMail as a tool for social,…
Virtual Diaspora
This article, concentrating on contemporary Croatia, explores the role of computer-mediated communication in new relationships between the homeland at war and diaspora. Computer mediated diasporic public spheres are discussed as forms of creative imaginings of a national space from diverse global sites. The text is critical of any suggestion that diasporic identifications are able to be read off, simplistically, from dominant forms of homeland na…
Globalna socijalna politika
Globalisation, memory and welfare regimes in transition
Processes of transnational policy transfers are of immense importance in understanding new forms of the reproduction of relations and discourses of power, and of memory and forgetfulness, within particular social welfare regimes. Transnational advice and policy transfers appear particularly unsuited to the need to address the complexities of the ways in which welfare subjects interact with welfare regimes which seek to organise their lives, a the…
International Non-State Actors and Social Development Policy
This article focuses on two broad groups of actors, international non-governmental organizations (INGOs) and international consultancy companies (ICCs), and situates them within wider trends in aid and development policies. In the context of a neo-liberal policy agenda, many leading INGOs reorganized so that they became closer to emerging ICCs, as consulting, outsourcing and subcontracting became key features of aid and development policy. Throug…
Policies as translation
Introduction A constructivist ‘anthropology of policy’ ‘treats the models and language of decision-makers as ethnographic data to be analysed’ (Shore and Wright, 1997, p 13) so that policy is viewed as a process rather than a fact. This approach is more concerned with how policy means rather than with what policy means. It reverses a traditional anthropology of ‘making the strange familiar’ with a commitment to ‘making the familiar strange’ (MacC…
Social Policy and International Interventions in South East Europe
Contents:Preface1. Transnationalism and the Making of Social Policy in South East EuropeBob Deacon and Paul Stubbs2. Europeanisation of Social Policy? Prospects and Challenges for South East EuropeNoemi Lendvai3. SloveniaMojca Novak and Katja Rihar Bajuk4. Bulgaria and RomaniaDimitri A. Sotiropoulos and Luana Pop5. CroatiaPaul Stubbs and Sini'a Zri'?ak6. TurkeyBurcu Yakut-Cigar7. MacedoniaMaja Gerovska Mitev8. Bosnia and HerzegovinaReima Ana Magl…
Policies as translation
This chapter investigates some of the implications of developing an anthropology or ethnography of the transnational dimensions of policy (dimensions of policy which comprises levels beyond the individual nation state). It adheres to ethnographic accounts of policy change processes which highlight policy mediation, dialogue, translation, compromise, and resistance. It focuses on social policy in terms of its ‘displacements’ or ‘deep uncertainties…
Višnja Samardžija (ur.)
Moja je pocetna teza da Lisabonsku strategiju i njezinu reviziju trebamo promatrati u kontekstu pokusaja da se nadiđu ili, nastojanja da se barem spoje, dvije velike ideje koje su dominirale zapadnom Europom od zavrsetka Drugog svjetskog rata, a to su socijalna demokracija i neo-liberalizam. Zbornik je prema mojim saznanjima prvi takve vrste u Hrvatskoj ; opsežnog i multidisciplinarnog pristupa jednom od kljucnih aspekata suvremene EU koji je osi…
Reflections on International Actors and the Making of Social Policy in Croatia
Baveci se ulogom međunarodnih aktera u tri kljucna trenutka u razvoju socijalne politike u Hrvatskoj poslije stjecanja neovisnosti, ovaj clanak poima socijalne reforme kao složene interaktivne procese u kojima su naslijeđa i konteksti bitni. Nepovjerenje koje je rezultat implicitne socijalne politike u kontekstu novog ratovima uvjetovanog humanitarizma tijekom ratova, jos vise produbljeno zbog problema vezanih uz projekte reforme kojima se upravl…
Emergent regional co‐operation in South East Europe
Regional cooperation in South East Europe is at a crossroads. Until now, it has been largely ascribed by outside forces, perceived as a condition related to the EU integration process, and approached from a state‐based viewpoint as an interstate construct. However, there are emergent trends which reframe regional cooperation as ‘open regionalism’, more achieved from within, and consisting of multi‐actor, multilevel and multi‐scalar processes form…
CCT as Policy Translation
Assemblages, Translation, and Intermediaries in South East Europe
International and transnational processes pose distinctive challenges to the traditional boundaries and conceptual frameworks of the discipline of social policy. International actors can no longer simply be ‘added on’ to traditional national studies. Rather, a new vocabulary and epistemology is needed to capture the complexity and liminality of the encounters between actors, sites, discourses, scales and contexts. In this text, based on empirical…
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