Juan Battle
Dados Biográficos
| ID | 3686006 |
|---|---|
| NOME | Juan Battle |
| PRENOMES | Juan |
| SOBRENOME | Battle |
| ASSINATURA | BATTLE J |
| AFILIAÇÕES | The Graduate Center, CUNY |
| ORCID | 0000-0003-4655-1986 |
| VERIFICADO | Sim |
| TOTAL DE OBRAS | 41 |
| TOTAL DE CITAÇÕES | 313 |
| TOTAL COMO AUTOR | 40 |
| TOTAL COMO EDITOR | 1 |
| PRIMEIRO ANO DE PUBLICAÇÃO | 1997 |
| ANO MAIS RECENTE DE PUBLICAÇÃO | 2025 |
| ÍNDICE H | 9 |
Poverty, Intersectionality, and Educational Aspirations
The impact of poverty on educational expectations has been well documented; but few quantitative studies have utilized nationally representative data to explore the longitudinal impact of near poverty status, educational context, parental expectations, and engagement, on the academic expectations of Black students; and then conducted that analysis separately for both genders. The current study seeks to fill this lacuna by exploring the impact of …
Latinx Students’ Educational Expectations
The impact of poverty on educational expectations has been well documented, but few have considered the longitudinal impact of being near poor. This study contributes to that literature by employing a national sample of Latinx high school students – separately for male and female students – to better understand the impact of near poverty, demographic variables, and academic capital on educational aspirations. Because near-poor families have house…
Race, Gender, and HIV Testing
Black communities comprise 13% of the U.S. population, but accounted for 42% of all new HIV infections in 2019. Key to reducing HIV infection rates is knowing one’s status. A precursor to knowing is getting tested for HIV. The more information one has concerning the ways social determinants serve as conduits and barriers to getting tested, the more beneficial to all communities, and especially marginalized ones. To help fill this gap in knowledge…
Género Y Sexualidad
Latine communities comprise 18% of the U.S. population but account for 27% of all new HIV infections in 2019. Arguably, a key ingredient to reducing HIV infection rate is knowing one’s status. A precursor to knowing is actually getting tested for HIV. The more information one has concerning how social determinants serve as conduits and barriers to getting testing, the more beneficial to all communities, especially marginalized ones. To help fill …
Latinx Parents, Latinx Students, and In-School Suspension
Over the last several decades, “zero-tolerance” policies have been implemented by federal, state, and local educational systems, which have altered the culture of learning. A consequence of this “tough on education” culture is what some scholars have called the “school-to-prison-pipeline” which disproportionately impacts students of color. By using a national representative sample of Latinx students from the National Center for Education Statisti…
A Quantitative Study of Mathematics Identity and Achievement among LatinX Secondary School Students
Using data from the National Center of Educational Statistics’ (NCES) 2009 High School Longitudinal Study, this article studies the relationship between mathematics identity and mathematics success for LatinX students by relying on critical race theory and intersectionality as theoretical frameworks. The quantitative analysis relies on hierarchical regression modeling to examine the relative impact of demographic variables, school characteristics…
Physical activity and GPA
Physical Activity is an important contributor to health, both physical and cognitive. The relationship between physical activity and educational outcomes has been explored in a variety of venues. Little research, however, has recently interrogated this subject longitudinally, and especially for a national sample of Black students. To address that gap, this paper employs data from the High School Longitudinal Study (HSLS), hierarchical regression …
Queer People of Color
As individuals who historically have faced multiple forms of oppression, queer people of color often find themselves struggling to "fit in." What impact does this have on their sociopolitical involvement within their communities of color? Within the queer community? And to what effect? Based on one of the largest surveys to date of African American, Latina/o, Asian American, and Pacific Islander American LGB people, this book offers a unique angl…
Conexión a la Comunidad
Over the past decade, progress among LGBT Americans has been impressive. However, are all subgroups experiencing that process equally? More specifically, for example, how connected to the larger/majority (white) LGBT community do Latinx LGBTs feel? Using a national sample of LGBT Latinx people (N=1,159), this article examines the relative importance of a variety of characteristics in understanding connectedness to the larger LGBT community. Hiera…
Black Family Structure and Educational Outcomes
Familia y educación
The Latinx community is the fastest growing demographic in the United States and faces high rates of xenophobia and racism because of myths surrounding immigration and criminality. Therefore, Latinx communities are faced with many challenges. Parental configuration and educational attainment are key areas to explore the Latinx community in U.S. society. Utilizing a national representative sample from the Educational Longitudinal Study (ELS) from …
The Relative Importance of Parental Configuration for Latinx Students’ Educational Attainment
Although many studies have examined the importance of parental configuration for Latinx students’ educational attainment, few have considered the longitudinal impact of one versus two-parent households on Latinx children’s educational attainment. This article employs intersectionality as a theoretical framework and utilizes a nationally representative sample from the National Center for Education Statistics’ (NCES) Education Longitudinal Study to…
Melting Pot
Mainly used as a metaphor to evoke the experiences of assimilation for immigrants in the United States, “melting pot” is a term that has been used by scholars and policy‐makers in the exploration of race/ethnicity, immigration, and inequality. One strand of this concept rests on the belief that immigrant groups eventually shed beliefs, linguistic styles, and other cultural practices from their country of origin and meld with other people in order…
An Examination of Latinx LGBT Populations Across the United States
This book utilizes personal narratives and survey data from over 1,100 respondents to explore the diversity of experiences across Latinx LGBT communities within the United States, including Puerto Ric
Understanding Identity Making in the Context of Sociopolitical Involvement among Asian and Pacific Islander American Lesbian and Bisexual Women
This study examines how Asian and Pacific Islander American (API) lesbians and bisexual women form identities within the context of occupying both ethnic and sexual minority social statuses. To do so, we examine the correlates of sociopolitical involvement within minority communities among a sample of 175 API lesbian and bisexual women. The findings suggest that feeling connected to lesbian, gay, bisexual, and transgender (LGBT) communities plays…
Civic Engagement, Religion, and Health
Intersections of age, race, gender, sexuality, and aging keep older, black lesbians hidden from public consciousness and from researchers. While previous research has documented a relationship between religion, civic engagement, and health for black women, there is little known about these for older black lesbians. This paper offers a quantitative analysis of the relationship between religion, health, and civic engagement for a sample (N=149) of …
Feelings of Belonging
This article compares and contrasts the sociopolitical involvement of Black, Latina, and Asian/Pacific Islander American sexual minority women within lesbian, gay, bisexual, and transgender (LGBT) communities of color. For the analysis, a sample of over 1,200 women from the Social Justice Sexuality project was analyzed. Findings indicate that, for all groups of women, feelings of connectedness to the LGBT community was the most significant predic…
The Impact of Community Involvement, Religion, and Spirituality on Happiness and Health among a National Sample of Black Lesbians
The health and health-care research community is slowly turning its attention to LGBT (lesbian, gay, bisexual, transgender) people of color. This study advances such efforts by exploring the relative impact of engagement in the LGBT community, religiosity, and spirituality on self-reported happiness and overall health among a national sample of black lesbians. Employing OLS (ordinary least squares) regression analysis, we find that having a highe…
Unpacking Civic Engagement
Employing a national sample of over 600 same-gender loving (SGL) black women, we explore the relative impact of community-level support/comfort and the importance of sexual orientation and racial identity on two dependent variables-sociopolitical involvement within lesbian, gay, bisexual, and transgender (LGBT) communities as well as sociopolitical involvement within people of color (POC) communities. Findings indicate that feelings of connectedn…
The Sociopolitical Involvement of Black, Latino, and Asian/Pacific Islander Gay and Bisexual Men
This paper compares and contrasts the sociopolitical involvement of Black, Latino, and Asian/Pacific Islander men within lesbian, gay, bisexual, and transgender (LGBT) communities of color. We hypothesize that being connected to community, and believing in the importance of sexual and racial/ethnic identity would positively impact men's sociopolitical involvement within LGBT communities of color. Findings indicate that, for all groups of men, fee…
Belonging and Acceptance
This article employs a national sample of almost 400 bisexual and lesbian Latinas to examine the impact of community-level support/comfort, as well as the importance of sexual orientation and racial identity, on sociopolitical involvement. Results indicate that feelings of connectedness to the lesbian, gay, bisexual, and transgender (LGBT) community are the most important predictor of sociopolitical involvement within both LGBT and people of colo…
Connectedness and the Sociopolitical Involvement of Same-gender-loving Black Men
Employing a national sample of over 800 same-gender-loving black men, we explore the relative impact of community-level support/comfort and the importance of sexual orientation and racial identity on two dependent variables-sociopolitical involvement within lesbian, gay, bisexual, and transgender (LGBT) communities and sociopolitical involvement within people of color (POC) communities. Findings indicate that feelings of connectedness to LBGT com…
Punished
Introduction to Special Issue
Striving for Place
This chapter contains sections titled: Piecing Together Place: Lesbians, Gays, Bisexuals, and Transgender Persons in Black History Re-Visioning Place: Lesbians, Gays, Bisexuals, and Transgender Persons in Black Culture Social Science Research Re-configuring Place: Future Directions in Black LGBT Studies
The Relative Importance of Ethnicity and Religion in Predicting Attitudes Towards Gays and Lesbians
Using data from a sample of college students from several campuses throughout the United States, this research examines whether ethnic differences (African Americans versus European Americans) in attitudes toward gays and lesbians are a function of religious attendance. Multiple regressions were run separately for attitudes towards lesbians and attitudes toward gay men. When predicting attitudes toward lesbians, ethnic differences were present in…
Black Masculinity Matters in Attitudes Toward Gay Males
Recent work on attitudes toward homosexuals promotes the view that males typically have more negative attitudes than females; and African Americans have more negative attitudes than their white counterparts. However, among African Americans, women are thought to have the greatest negative attitudes because they perceive themselves as competing for a limited pool of black male partners. This study uses the National Black Politics Study to examine …
Feelings of Belonging
This article compares and contrasts the sociopolitical involvement of Black, Latina, and Asian/Pacific Islander American sexual minority women within lesbian, gay, bisexual, and transgender (LGBT) communities of color. For the analysis, a sample of over 1,200 women from the Social Justice Sexuality project was analyzed. Findings indicate that, for all groups of women, feelings of connectedness to the LGBT community was the most significant predic…
Unpacking Civic Engagement
Employing a national sample of over 600 same-gender loving (SGL) black women, we explore the relative impact of community-level support/comfort and the importance of sexual orientation and racial identity on two dependent variables-sociopolitical involvement within lesbian, gay, bisexual, and transgender (LGBT) communities as well as sociopolitical involvement within people of color (POC) communities. Findings indicate that feelings of connectedn…
Belonging and Acceptance
This article employs a national sample of almost 400 bisexual and lesbian Latinas to examine the impact of community-level support/comfort, as well as the importance of sexual orientation and racial identity, on sociopolitical involvement. Results indicate that feelings of connectedness to the lesbian, gay, bisexual, and transgender (LGBT) community are the most important predictor of sociopolitical involvement within both LGBT and people of colo…
The Impact of Community Involvement, Religion, and Spirituality on Happiness and Health among a National Sample of Black Lesbians
The health and health-care research community is slowly turning its attention to LGBT (lesbian, gay, bisexual, transgender) people of color. This study advances such efforts by exploring the relative impact of engagement in the LGBT community, religiosity, and spirituality on self-reported happiness and overall health among a national sample of black lesbians. Employing OLS (ordinary least squares) regression analysis, we find that having a highe…
Computers and Young Children
Using time-diary data from a national sample of young school-age children, we examine the correlates of time spent at home on computing for cognitive and other measures of well-being. We observe modest benefits associated with home computing on three tests of cognitive skill, and on a measure of self-esteem. Most young children who spend time at home on computer-based activities spend no less time on activities such as reading, sports or outside …
The Sociopolitical Involvement of Black, Latino, and Asian/Pacific Islander Gay and Bisexual Men
This paper compares and contrasts the sociopolitical involvement of Black, Latino, and Asian/Pacific Islander men within lesbian, gay, bisexual, and transgender (LGBT) communities of color. We hypothesize that being connected to community, and believing in the importance of sexual and racial/ethnic identity would positively impact men's sociopolitical involvement within LGBT communities of color. Findings indicate that, for all groups of men, fee…
The Increasing Significance of Class
Previous researchers have found that, on average, African American students don't perform as well in school as their white counterparts. Another frequent finding is that the higher a student's socioeconomic status the higher her or his educational achievement. However, there has been little attention paid to how race and socioeconomic status interact to affect educational achievement. Using a nationally representative sample from the National Edu…
Mother-only versus father-only households
Familia y educación
The Latinx community is the fastest growing demographic in the United States and faces high rates of xenophobia and racism because of myths surrounding immigration and criminality. Therefore, Latinx communities are faced with many challenges. Parental configuration and educational attainment are key areas to explore the Latinx community in U.S. society. Utilizing a national representative sample from the Educational Longitudinal Study (ELS) from …
Father-Only and Mother-Only, Single-Parent Family Status of Black Girls and Achievement in Grade Twelve and at Two-Years Post High School
Juan Battle, Deborah L. Coates, Father-Only and Mother-Only, Single-Parent Family Status of Black Girls and Achievement in Grade Twelve and at Two-Years Post High School, The Journal of Negro Education, Vol. 73, No. 4, Special Focus: Parenting, Family, and Youth (Autumn, 2004), pp. 392-407
Connectedness and the Sociopolitical Involvement of Same-gender-loving Black Men
Employing a national sample of over 800 same-gender-loving black men, we explore the relative impact of community-level support/comfort and the importance of sexual orientation and racial identity on two dependent variables-sociopolitical involvement within lesbian, gay, bisexual, and transgender (LGBT) communities and sociopolitical involvement within people of color (POC) communities. Findings indicate that feelings of connectedness to LBGT com…
Partnering, parenting, and policy
Civic Engagement, Religion, and Health
Intersections of age, race, gender, sexuality, and aging keep older, black lesbians hidden from public consciousness and from researchers. While previous research has documented a relationship between religion, civic engagement, and health for black women, there is little known about these for older black lesbians. This paper offers a quantitative analysis of the relationship between religion, health, and civic engagement for a sample (N=149) of …
Black Family Structure and Educational Outcomes
Academic Achievement among Hispanic Students from One-Versus Dual-Parent Households
Using data from a nationally representative sample of eighth-grade students, this research examines the relative effect of being in a one-parent versus dual-parent household on the educational achievement of Hispanic middle-grade students. It found that under most circumstances, students in dual-parent households do better than their counterparts in one-parent households. However, when appropriately controlling for socioeconomic status, students …
Latinx Parents, Latinx Students, and In-School Suspension
Over the last several decades, “zero-tolerance” policies have been implemented by federal, state, and local educational systems, which have altered the culture of learning. A consequence of this “tough on education” culture is what some scholars have called the “school-to-prison-pipeline” which disproportionately impacts students of color. By using a national representative sample of Latinx students from the National Center for Education Statisti…
Introduction to Special Issue
The Relative Importance of Race and Socioeconomic Status Among Hispanic and White Students
Using a nationally representative sample from the National Educational Longitudinal Study, this research examines the longitudinal effects of race and socioeconomic status on 12th-grade educational achievement and achievement 2 years after high school. For 12th-grade outcomes, the authors found no statistical difference in scores between Hispanic and White students. Two years after high school, the results were very surprising: (a) when controlli…
The Relative Effects of Married Versus Divorced Family Configuration and Socioeconomic Status on the Educational Achievement of African American Middle-Grade Students
Juan Battle, The Relative Effects of Married Versus Divorced Family Configuration and Socioeconomic Status on the Educational Achievement of African American Middle-Grade Students, The Journal of Negro Education, Vol. 66, No. 1 (Winter, 1997), pp. 29-42
Poverty, Intersectionality, and Educational Aspirations
The impact of poverty on educational expectations has been well documented; but few quantitative studies have utilized nationally representative data to explore the longitudinal impact of near poverty status, educational context, parental expectations, and engagement, on the academic expectations of Black students; and then conducted that analysis separately for both genders. The current study seeks to fill this lacuna by exploring the impact of …
Latinx Students’ Educational Expectations
The impact of poverty on educational expectations has been well documented, but few have considered the longitudinal impact of being near poor. This study contributes to that literature by employing a national sample of Latinx high school students – separately for male and female students – to better understand the impact of near poverty, demographic variables, and academic capital on educational aspirations. Because near-poor families have house…
A Quantitative Study of Mathematics Identity and Achievement among LatinX Secondary School Students
Using data from the National Center of Educational Statistics’ (NCES) 2009 High School Longitudinal Study, this article studies the relationship between mathematics identity and mathematics success for LatinX students by relying on critical race theory and intersectionality as theoretical frameworks. The quantitative analysis relies on hierarchical regression modeling to examine the relative impact of demographic variables, school characteristics…
Conexión a la Comunidad
Over the past decade, progress among LGBT Americans has been impressive. However, are all subgroups experiencing that process equally? More specifically, for example, how connected to the larger/majority (white) LGBT community do Latinx LGBTs feel? Using a national sample of LGBT Latinx people (N=1,159), this article examines the relative importance of a variety of characteristics in understanding connectedness to the larger LGBT community. Hiera…
Academic Achievement among Hispanic Students from One-Versus Dual-Parent Households
Using data from a nationally representative sample of eighth-grade students, this research examines the relative effect of being in a one-parent versus dual-parent household on the educational achievement of Hispanic middle-grade students. It found that under most circumstances, students in dual-parent households do better than their counterparts in one-parent households. However, when appropriately controlling for socioeconomic status, students …
The Relative Effects of Married Versus Divorced Family Configuration and Socioeconomic Status on the Educational Achievement of African American Middle-Grade Students
Juan Battle, The Relative Effects of Married Versus Divorced Family Configuration and Socioeconomic Status on the Educational Achievement of African American Middle-Grade Students, The Journal of Negro Education, Vol. 66, No. 1 (Winter, 1997), pp. 29-42
What Beats Having Two Parents
A superficial investigation of census data could lead one to conclude, contrary to popular opinion, that single-parent family configurations work to the educational advantage of students. For example, the census indicates that as more African American children were raised in single-parent families, fewer of them dropped out of school. In 1970, 31.5% of African American children lived with one parent; however, by 1991, that number had skyrocketed …
Mother-only versus father-only households
The invisible gender
W.E.B. Du Bois's Talented Tenth
The Talented Tenth is the moniker that W.E.B. Du Bois bestowed on the cadre of college-educated African Americans whom he charged with providing leadership for the African American community during the post-Reconstruction era. According to Du Bois's original theoretical formulation, the Talented Tenth were to sacrifice their personal interests and endeavors to provide leadership for the African American community. Following in Du Bois's footsteps…
The Increasing Significance of Class
Previous researchers have found that, on average, African American students don't perform as well in school as their white counterparts. Another frequent finding is that the higher a student's socioeconomic status the higher her or his educational achievement. However, there has been little attention paid to how race and socioeconomic status interact to affect educational achievement. Using a nationally representative sample from the National Edu…
Longitudinal Analysis of Academic Achievement Amonga Nationwide Sample of Hispanic Students in One-Versus Dual-Parent Households
Previous researchers have found that, on average, students in single-parent households do not perform as well in school as their counterparts in dual-parent households. Another frequent finding is that the higher a student’s socioeconomic status, the higher her or his educational achievement. However, there has been little attention paid to how family configuration and socioeconomic status interact to affect educational achievement of Hispanic st…
Partnering, parenting, and policy
Computers and Young Children
Using time-diary data from a national sample of young school-age children, we examine the correlates of time spent at home on computing for cognitive and other measures of well-being. We observe modest benefits associated with home computing on three tests of cognitive skill, and on a measure of self-esteem. Most young children who spend time at home on computer-based activities spend no less time on activities such as reading, sports or outside …
Father-Only and Mother-Only, Single-Parent Family Status of Black Girls and Achievement in Grade Twelve and at Two-Years Post High School
Juan Battle, Deborah L. Coates, Father-Only and Mother-Only, Single-Parent Family Status of Black Girls and Achievement in Grade Twelve and at Two-Years Post High School, The Journal of Negro Education, Vol. 73, No. 4, Special Focus: Parenting, Family, and Youth (Autumn, 2004), pp. 392-407
The Relative Importance of Ethnicity and Religion in Predicting Attitudes Towards Gays and Lesbians
Using data from a sample of college students from several campuses throughout the United States, this research examines whether ethnic differences (African Americans versus European Americans) in attitudes toward gays and lesbians are a function of religious attendance. Multiple regressions were run separately for attitudes towards lesbians and attitudes toward gay men. When predicting attitudes toward lesbians, ethnic differences were present in…
Black Masculinity Matters in Attitudes Toward Gay Males
Recent work on attitudes toward homosexuals promotes the view that males typically have more negative attitudes than females; and African Americans have more negative attitudes than their white counterparts. However, among African Americans, women are thought to have the greatest negative attitudes because they perceive themselves as competing for a limited pool of black male partners. This study uses the National Black Politics Study to examine …
Free at Last
Striving for Place
This chapter contains sections titled: Piecing Together Place: Lesbians, Gays, Bisexuals, and Transgender Persons in Black History Re-Visioning Place: Lesbians, Gays, Bisexuals, and Transgender Persons in Black Culture Social Science Research Re-configuring Place: Future Directions in Black LGBT Studies
Melting Pot
Mainly used as a metaphor to evoke the experiences of assimilation for immigrants in the United States, the melting pot is a term that has been used by scholars in the field of race/ethnicity, immigration, and inequality. One strand of this concept rests on the belief that immigrant groups eventually shed beliefs, linguistic styles, and other cultural practices from their country of origin and meld with other people in order to form a new US‐base…
The Relative Importance of Race and Socioeconomic Status Among Hispanic and White Students
Using a nationally representative sample from the National Educational Longitudinal Study, this research examines the longitudinal effects of race and socioeconomic status on 12th-grade educational achievement and achievement 2 years after high school. For 12th-grade outcomes, the authors found no statistical difference in scores between Hispanic and White students. Two years after high school, the results were very surprising: (a) when controlli…
Introduction to Special Issue
Punished
Unpacking Civic Engagement
Employing a national sample of over 600 same-gender loving (SGL) black women, we explore the relative impact of community-level support/comfort and the importance of sexual orientation and racial identity on two dependent variables-sociopolitical involvement within lesbian, gay, bisexual, and transgender (LGBT) communities as well as sociopolitical involvement within people of color (POC) communities. Findings indicate that feelings of connectedn…
The Sociopolitical Involvement of Black, Latino, and Asian/Pacific Islander Gay and Bisexual Men
This paper compares and contrasts the sociopolitical involvement of Black, Latino, and Asian/Pacific Islander men within lesbian, gay, bisexual, and transgender (LGBT) communities of color. We hypothesize that being connected to community, and believing in the importance of sexual and racial/ethnic identity would positively impact men's sociopolitical involvement within LGBT communities of color. Findings indicate that, for all groups of men, fee…
Belonging and Acceptance
This article employs a national sample of almost 400 bisexual and lesbian Latinas to examine the impact of community-level support/comfort, as well as the importance of sexual orientation and racial identity, on sociopolitical involvement. Results indicate that feelings of connectedness to the lesbian, gay, bisexual, and transgender (LGBT) community are the most important predictor of sociopolitical involvement within both LGBT and people of colo…
Connectedness and the Sociopolitical Involvement of Same-gender-loving Black Men
Employing a national sample of over 800 same-gender-loving black men, we explore the relative impact of community-level support/comfort and the importance of sexual orientation and racial identity on two dependent variables-sociopolitical involvement within lesbian, gay, bisexual, and transgender (LGBT) communities and sociopolitical involvement within people of color (POC) communities. Findings indicate that feelings of connectedness to LBGT com…
The Impact of Community Involvement, Religion, and Spirituality on Happiness and Health among a National Sample of Black Lesbians
The health and health-care research community is slowly turning its attention to LGBT (lesbian, gay, bisexual, transgender) people of color. This study advances such efforts by exploring the relative impact of engagement in the LGBT community, religiosity, and spirituality on self-reported happiness and overall health among a national sample of black lesbians. Employing OLS (ordinary least squares) regression analysis, we find that having a highe…
Understanding Identity Making in the Context of Sociopolitical Involvement among Asian and Pacific Islander American Lesbian and Bisexual Women
This study examines how Asian and Pacific Islander American (API) lesbians and bisexual women form identities within the context of occupying both ethnic and sexual minority social statuses. To do so, we examine the correlates of sociopolitical involvement within minority communities among a sample of 175 API lesbian and bisexual women. The findings suggest that feeling connected to lesbian, gay, bisexual, and transgender (LGBT) communities plays…
Sociology (37 obras) · Psychology (36 obras) · Gender Studies (27 obras) · Gender Studies (19 obras) · Demography (17 obras) · Political science (16 obras) · LGBTQ Health, Identity, and Policy (14 obras) · Social Psychology (14 obras) · Developmental psychology (13 obras) · Population (13 obras)