J Jongerden
Dados Biográficos
| ID | 47315 |
|---|---|
| NOME | J Jongerden |
| PRENOMES | J |
| SOBRENOME | Jongerden |
| ASSINATURA | JONGERDEN J |
| AFILIAÇÕES | Wageningen University & Research |
| ORCID | 0000-0002-0076-732X |
| VERIFICADO | Sim |
| TOTAL DE OBRAS | 57 |
| TOTAL DE CITAÇÕES | 171 |
| TOTAL COMO AUTOR | 57 |
| TOTAL COMO EDITOR | 0 |
| PRIMEIRO ANO DE PUBLICAÇÃO | 2001 |
| ANO MAIS RECENTE DE PUBLICAÇÃO | 2026 |
| ÍNDICE H | 9 |
A Relational Perspective on Land in Armed Conflict
This article examines the Turkish state's Village Guard system, revived in the 1980s as part of its counterinsurgency strategy against the Kurdistan Workers Party (PKK). While often framed as a defensive militia, the Village Guards became central to the state's exceptional governance in Kurdistan, both facilitating military control and enabling significant socio‐economic and demographic transformation. Drawing on scholarship on paramilitarism and…
Contesting an exclusive citizenship regime
Repeated calls have been made to focus on the politics of political violence for a better understanding of the political fundamentals of an armed movement. In this article we look into the politics of the Kurdistan Workers Party (Partiya Karkerên Kurdistan, PKK) through its engagement in municipal politics in the late 1970s in Batman, then a rural town in the Kurdistan region in Turkey, which rapidly industrialised after the local discovery of oi…
A Place to Transit
Decolonisation agriculture
This article examines the colonial homogenising policies of the Syrian Ba’ath regime and the subsequent decolonisation processes that led to the emergence of Rojava as a pluriverse. In 1963, the Ba’ath regime implemented nation-state colonialism in the predominantly Kurdish region, using agricultural modernisation as a tool for its colonisation efforts. This modernisation bolstered the central state, perpetuated the underdevelopment of the region…
Federalism and Decentralization in the Contemporary Middle East and North Africa
From Nazism to Pro‐Kurdish Activism
Kurdish studies was born as a field of study in imperial Russia, and for much of the twentieth century, the Soviet Union remained the centre of ‘Kurdology’. With the foundation of the International Society Kurdistan (ISK) in Amsterdam in 1960, however, this centre started to move westwards. Officially established as a non‐party democratic action group helping the Kurdish nation in its struggle for democratic independence, the ISK’s unwritten aim …
Beyond farming women
The issue of gender and agriculture has been on the research agendas of civil society organisations, governments, and academia since the 1970s. Starting from the role of women in agriculture, research has mainly focused on the gendered division of work and the normative constitution of the farm as masculine. Although the gendered division of work has been questioned, the idea of binary gender has mostly been taken as a given. This explorative res…
Rebel governance without territorial control
Insurgent movements rely on popular support using varying strategies to build supportive constituencies, including forms of rebel governance. The rebel governance literature explicitly limits its scope to insurgent cases with territorial control, excluding all groups that did not obtain territorial control, areas of weaker insurgent presence and early phases of mobilisation. This article focuses on Kurdistan Workers Party’s (PKK) use of rebel gov…
Reverse Discourse, Queering of Self-Determination, and Sexual Ruptures
The idea of self-determination through independent state formation served as a crucial political principle for groups and organisations resisting colonial domination and the capitalist world system during the post-World War II era. Kurdish political movements and parties were no exception. They embraced the idea that, as a nation, they were entitled to a state that exercised exclusive territorial control. One of these parties was the Kurdistan Wo…
Autonomy as a third mode of ordering
While the fight of the Kurdish movement against Islamic State (IS) received much coverage, almost no attention was or has been given to the reconstruction efforts of Rojava after its liberation from the Ba′ath regime and the defeat of the caliphate, let alone the political principles underlying the reconstruction of the agrarian economy. This contribution discusses the agricultural policy in Rojava from the perspective of autonomy. It focuses on …
On meaningful diversity
On Meaningful Diversity: Past, present and future of Wageningen rural sociology reflects on 75 years of rural sociology at Wageningen University, the Netherlands. This anniversary book provides a kaleidoscopic overview of the exciting diversity and theoretical depth of the work of the Rural Sociology Group. In addition to introducing key concepts and research approaches, and discussing how these have evolved over time, the book also provides an u…
‘Everyone is a Possibility’
Of the millions of Syrians who have fled their homes since the outbreak of civil war in Syria in 2011, some 3.4 million are registered in Turkey. Although the Turkish government and humanitarian organizations provide services and aid, these do not meet the needs of refugees to ensure their livelihoods. Research indicates that refugees build their livelihoods more upon informal support systems and personal choices than on formal support from the g…
Selling captive nature
Ecotourism has become an increasingly important market-based practice in nature conservation. Several scholars and non-governmental organizations have discussed this as a commodification of nature in the context of capitalist expansion, but only a few have examined how value is produced in this process. Focusing on ecotourism in Tangkahan, in the Sumatra Island of Indonesia, this paper looks at how value is produced in human-elephant encounters. …
Gender Revolution in Rojava
Kurdish women fighters of the Women’s Protection Unit, YPJ (Yekîneyên Parastine Jin) received considerable attention in Western Europe and the United States. They made the headlines of mainstream newspapers and magazines. The emergence of an all-women, secular military force in the Middle East initiated a multi-layered process of conditional recognition of the Kurdish struggle – a ‘recognition’ in the sense of wide media coverage, but ‘conditiona…
Peace committees, platforms and the political ordering of society
Conflict mediation has become an important feature of the justice system of the autonomous self-administration in Rojava and north and east Syria. This conflict mediation takes place mainly through peace committees and platforms. Based on fieldwork in the region, this study addresses the question of how the peace committees and platforms provide justice and what this form of justice provision says about the model of self-administration. A main co…
Unpacking legitimacy in regional development
In recent years, policy-makers and researchers have identified regional development agencies as the most suitable actors to carry out public tasks. One of these tasks has been the coordination of regional development processes. Both practitioners and researchers argue that legitimacy is a prerequisite for these regional actors to function properly. Although legitimacy is a key issue, little is known about the challenges that arise while producing…
Development through design
The Foucauldian concept of power-knowledge has been a useful lens to study the idea, discourse, and practice of development. Since the 1980s, many scholars have employed this critical framework to unearth the overlooked power relations created and altered by the concept of development in general, and development projects in particular. This article contributes to this debate by advancing and enriching this perspective. Analyzing a broad number of…
Conquering the state and subordinating society under AKP rule
The 2016 post-coup attempt measures in Turkey have been evaluated as a process of backsliding on civic rights and freedoms. This contribution takes a slightly different approach. The so-called ‘democratic breakdown’ or ‘backsliding’ in rights and the rule of law should not be regarded as a (mere) attribute of the post-coup aftermath. The idea that a process of democratization in Turkey derailed or became disrupted after the coup only feeds the my…
Learning from defeat
The ideological reorientation and political reorganisation of the PKK has been a subject of debate. While some authors recognise that significant changes occurred within the PKK, others have dismissed the PKK’s transformation as a communication strategy and window-dressing. Based on interviews with key informants, this article reconstructs debates and developments within the party at the beginning of the 2000s. A main conclusion is that the trans…
Negotiating halal
Rural‒Urban Mobilities in Turkey
Based on original data, this article discusses rural‒urban mobilities and the contemporary employment‒migration relationship. Starting with the observation of reduced rural population but maintained family-farm numbers, it engages with multiple issues, including rural employment, the process of urban migration, settlement in the city, the relation of migrants to the rurality and (return) counter-migration. It supports the thesis that migration is…
Turkey, the Insane and the Melancholy
Governing Kurdistan
On 25 September 2017, voters in the Kurdistan Region of Iraq and disputed areas controlled by Kurdish forces were given the opportunity to respond ‘Yes’ or ‘No’ to the question ‘Do you want the Kurdistan Region and the Kurdistani areas outside the administration of the Region to become an independent state?’ Functioning as an expression of the desire to construct an independent state, the referendum signalled a break with the formal Kurdistan Reg…
Drafting a Law, Dissolving a Proposal
Upon being sworn in as the 56th Ecuadorian President on 15 January 2007, Rafael Correa immediately convened, through a referendum, a National Constituent Assembly to draw up a new constitution. One of the concerns of the assembly was to translate into law a food-sovereignty proposal put forward by social movements. In the process of becoming law, the food-sovereignty proposal was much changed. How is it possible that the final version, the law, s…
Looking beyond the state
Transitional justice has been promoted as an approach to peace through a strengthening of the democratic rule of law, including a recognition of the rights of victims and the promotion of trust in legal mechanisms, to deal with legacies of violence and repression. A main critique of the transitional justice approach is that it leaves untouched the injustices underlying conflict and the structural causes of abuse. This article looks at ways in whi…
Environmental destruction as a counterinsurgency strategy in the Kurdistan region of Turkey
Fruitless Attempts? The Kurdish Initiative and Containment of the Kurdish Movement in Turkey
Following the victory of the Kurdish party DTP (Demokratik Toplum Partisi, Democratic Society Party) in Turkey's southeastern provinces in the local elections of March 2009, Turkey witnessed the AKP (Adalet ve Kalkınma Partisi, Justice and Development Party) government's Kurdish initiative, the closure of the victorious Kurdish party, and waves of arrests of Kurdish activists and politicians. This rush of action constituted a renewed effort to co…
Governing Kurdistan
On 25 September 2017, voters in the Kurdistan Region of Iraq and disputed areas controlled by Kurdish forces were given the opportunity to respond ‘Yes’ or ‘No’ to the question ‘Do you want the Kurdistan Region and the Kurdistani areas outside the administration of the Region to become an independent state?’ Functioning as an expression of the desire to construct an independent state, the referendum signalled a break with the formal Kurdistan Reg…
D ams and P olitics in T urkey
Looking beyond the state
Transitional justice has been promoted as an approach to peace through a strengthening of the democratic rule of law, including a recognition of the rights of victims and the promotion of trust in legal mechanisms, to deal with legacies of violence and repression. A main critique of the transitional justice approach is that it leaves untouched the injustices underlying conflict and the structural causes of abuse. This article looks at ways in whi…
The (re)production of the new peasantry in Turkey
Reassembling the Political
One of the most important secular political movements in the Middle East, the Kurdistan Workers Party (PKK) underwent a profound transformation in the 2000s. What the PKK has experienced in this period was a comprehensive restructuration of its organization, ideology and political-military struggle, changing its course towards a project of radical democracy. In this article we explore the content of this new project, and its practical implication…
Village Evacuation and Reconstruction in Kurdistan (1993-2002)
The countryside has been used as a medium for warfare and affected by counterinsurgency, but this has received relatively little attention. Transformations of the countryside in Turkish Kurdistan serve as the basis for discussing: Turkish counterinsurgency strategies from both military and political perspectives; the evacuation and destruction of villages in the course of campaigns; and development plans for the war zone. A major conclusion is th…
Resettlement and Reconstruction of Identity
Rebel governance without territorial control
Insurgent movements rely on popular support using varying strategies to build supportive constituencies, including forms of rebel governance. The rebel governance literature explicitly limits its scope to insurgent cases with territorial control, excluding all groups that did not obtain territorial control, areas of weaker insurgent presence and early phases of mobilisation. This article focuses on Kurdistan Workers Party’s (PKK) use of rebel gov…
Migration as Movement and Multiplace Life
Discussing recent trends and developments in migration and mobility affecting what may be referred to as a ‘reconstitution’ of villages, this paper discusses the changing character of rural settlement and settlement patterns in Turkey today. The binary division of rural and urban is questioned through a dialectical/relational approach to settlement formation, while settlement is defined by relation to (human) movement, itself understood as incorp…
Development through design
The Foucauldian concept of power-knowledge has been a useful lens to study the idea, discourse, and practice of development. Since the 1980s, many scholars have employed this critical framework to unearth the overlooked power relations created and altered by the concept of development in general, and development projects in particular. This article contributes to this debate by advancing and enriching this perspective. Analyzing a broad number of…
Images of war
In areas of war and armed conflict it is difficult to get trustworthy and coherent information. Civil society and human rights groups often face problems of dealing with fragmented witness reports, disinformation of war propaganda, and difficult direct access to these areas. Turkish Kurdistan was used as a case study of armed conflict to evaluate the potential use of satellite images for verification of witness reports collected by human rights g…
Selling captive nature
Ecotourism has become an increasingly important market-based practice in nature conservation. Several scholars and non-governmental organizations have discussed this as a commodification of nature in the context of capitalist expansion, but only a few have examined how value is produced in this process. Focusing on ecotourism in Tangkahan, in the Sumatra Island of Indonesia, this paper looks at how value is produced in human-elephant encounters. …
Gender Revolution in Rojava
Kurdish women fighters of the Women’s Protection Unit, YPJ (Yekîneyên Parastine Jin) received considerable attention in Western Europe and the United States. They made the headlines of mainstream newspapers and magazines. The emergence of an all-women, secular military force in the Middle East initiated a multi-layered process of conditional recognition of the Kurdish struggle – a ‘recognition’ in the sense of wide media coverage, but ‘conditiona…
The Kurdistan Workers Party and a New Left in Turkey
One of the banners the left had been marching behind in the 1970s was that of a ‘Fully Independent Turkey!’ – and yet, while these radical voices evaluated Turkey’s status as that of a semi-colony (of Western capitalist imperialism), it had turned a blind eye to Turkey’s own role as itself a colonizing country, vis-à-vis Kurdistan. In this article, we will discuss the contentious relationship between the PKK and the left, and the critique of the …
Understanding today's Kurdish movement
Though an important political actor in Turkey, and also in Syria, Iraq and Iran, there are few detailed socio-political accounts of the Kurdish movement’s main political actor in Turkey, the Partiya Karkêren Kurdistan (Kurdistan Workers’ Party or PKK). This may be considered an important demerit of not only Kurdish and Turkish Studies but social and political sciences in general. In this special issue, we aim to address what may be less a gap in …
Beyond farming women
The issue of gender and agriculture has been on the research agendas of civil society organisations, governments, and academia since the 1970s. Starting from the role of women in agriculture, research has mainly focused on the gendered division of work and the normative constitution of the farm as masculine. Although the gendered division of work has been questioned, the idea of binary gender has mostly been taken as a given. This explorative res…
Reverse Discourse, Queering of Self-Determination, and Sexual Ruptures
The idea of self-determination through independent state formation served as a crucial political principle for groups and organisations resisting colonial domination and the capitalist world system during the post-World War II era. Kurdish political movements and parties were no exception. They embraced the idea that, as a nation, they were entitled to a state that exercised exclusive territorial control. One of these parties was the Kurdistan Wo…
Crafting Space, Making People
Much has been written about identity politics in Turkey, mainly focusing on citizenship issues and analyses of state discourses. This article is concerned with a different dimension of identity-politics: the molding of society and identity through the construction of space. Based on a discussion of two cases, this contribution analyzes state attempts to craft ‘assimilating spaces.’ The first case discusses plans and activities to redesign the cou…
Decolonisation agriculture
This article examines the colonial homogenising policies of the Syrian Ba’ath regime and the subsequent decolonisation processes that led to the emergence of Rojava as a pluriverse. In 1963, the Ba’ath regime implemented nation-state colonialism in the predominantly Kurdish region, using agricultural modernisation as a tool for its colonisation efforts. This modernisation bolstered the central state, perpetuated the underdevelopment of the region…
On meaningful diversity
On Meaningful Diversity: Past, present and future of Wageningen rural sociology reflects on 75 years of rural sociology at Wageningen University, the Netherlands. This anniversary book provides a kaleidoscopic overview of the exciting diversity and theoretical depth of the work of the Rural Sociology Group. In addition to introducing key concepts and research approaches, and discussing how these have evolved over time, the book also provides an u…
Unpacking legitimacy in regional development
In recent years, policy-makers and researchers have identified regional development agencies as the most suitable actors to carry out public tasks. One of these tasks has been the coordination of regional development processes. Both practitioners and researchers argue that legitimacy is a prerequisite for these regional actors to function properly. Although legitimacy is a key issue, little is known about the challenges that arise while producing…
Negotiating halal
Development of the drought tolerant variety Sahbhagi Dhan
The concept of commons is often understood to refer to resources shared among a group of people. The resources are typically classified by binaries such as (non-)natural, (non-)rival and (non-)substractable, and the analytical focus is placed on governance for sustainable management. Another approach to the idea of commons emphasises social relations. This concentrates on production resulting from human-human and human-nature interactions. Here, …
Resettlement and Reconstruction of Identity
Villages of No Return
D uring the bitter war with the guerrillas of the Kurdistan Workers' Party (PKK) in the 1990s, the Turkish army and paramilitary depopulated and burned villages in southeastern Turkey on a systematic scale. Clearance of the countryside and resettlement of the rural population, from which the PKK drew membership, logistical support and intelligence, was considered crucial for a successful counterinsurgency. From I993 onward, the evacuation and bur…
The Settlement Issue in Turkey and the Kurds
In seeking to understand village evacuation in the Kurdistan region of Turkey in the 1980s and 1990s, this book focuses on the spatial aspects of the armed conflict. It tries to explain how settlement and resettlement policies and practices in Turkey have been part of a larger project of political and cultural engineering, based on a revision of a classical understanding of modernity as reflected in the work of Durkheim, Mauss, and Tönnies. This …
Environmental destruction as a counterinsurgency strategy in the Kurdistan region of Turkey
Images of war
In areas of war and armed conflict it is difficult to get trustworthy and coherent information. Civil society and human rights groups often face problems of dealing with fragmented witness reports, disinformation of war propaganda, and difficult direct access to these areas. Turkish Kurdistan was used as a case study of armed conflict to evaluate the potential use of satellite images for verification of witness reports collected by human rights g…
Exploring Possibilities to Enhance Food Sovereignty within the Cowpea Production-Consumption Network in Northern Ghana
Over the last years an important focus in the combat of hunger and malnutrition, particularly in Africa has been food security. This article explores possibilities for enhancing food sovereignty, as an alternative concept to food security and an alternative strategy for reversing hunger and malnutrition trends in developing countries. A combination of literature review, participatory appraisal and conventional survey methodologies are used to inv…
Crafting Space, Making People
Much has been written about identity politics in Turkey, mainly focusing on citizenship issues and analyses of state discourses. This article is concerned with a different dimension of identity-politics: the molding of society and identity through the construction of space. Based on a discussion of two cases, this contribution analyzes state attempts to craft ‘assimilating spaces.’ The first case discusses plans and activities to redesign the cou…
Martin Soekefeld, Struggling for Recognition
Although rendered as natural, identities do not form a natural order. They are defined and delineated by continuous social interventions. Like identities, groups too are socially constructed. Group formation and enrolment are ongoing processes involving ties that are uncertain, fragile, shifting, and controversial. Groups are defined, boundaries marked, patrolled and rendered fixed and durable (Latour 2005). Struggling for Recognition discusses t…
D ams and P olitics in T urkey
Village Evacuation and Reconstruction in Kurdistan (1993-2002)
The countryside has been used as a medium for warfare and affected by counterinsurgency, but this has received relatively little attention. Transformations of the countryside in Turkish Kurdistan serve as the basis for discussing: Turkish counterinsurgency strategies from both military and political perspectives; the evacuation and destruction of villages in the course of campaigns; and development plans for the war zone. A major conclusion is th…
The spatial (re)production of the Kurdish issue
Analysis of the Kurdish issue from a spatial perspective is not new, but spatial analyses are still relatively scarce. More often than not, Kurdish studies consist of time-centred work that represe
Fruitless Attempts? The Kurdish Initiative and Containment of the Kurdish Movement in Turkey
Following the victory of the Kurdish party DTP (Demokratik Toplum Partisi, Democratic Society Party) in Turkey's southeastern provinces in the local elections of March 2009, Turkey witnessed the AKP (Adalet ve Kalkınma Partisi, Justice and Development Party) government's Kurdish initiative, the closure of the victorious Kurdish party, and waves of arrests of Kurdish activists and politicians. This rush of action constituted a renewed effort to co…
A State of the Art of Self Help Groups in India
This paper considers the strategies of self help group for micro-enterprise development in rural areas. It seeks to answer the question of whether and under which conditions self help groups are an effective vehicle for organizing and representing local people in the development of community based micro-enterprises. Focusing particularly on examples from India in the context of food as a local resource, special attention is paid to success and fa…
Social Relations in Ottoman Diyarbekir, 1870-1915
Social Relations in Ottoman Diyarbekir, 1870-1915 offers new, microhistoric and non-nationalist perspectives on the late 19th century history of the province of Diyarbekir. Focusing on a period dominated by violent conflicts between the authorities and various local elites and population groups of the region – urban Muslims, Kurds, Armenians, Syrian Christians and others – this book offers new insights into the social history of the region and th…
Understanding today's Kurdish movement
Though an important political actor in Turkey, and also in Syria, Iraq and Iran, there are few detailed socio-political accounts of the Kurdish movement’s main political actor in Turkey, the Partiya Karkêren Kurdistan (Kurdistan Workers’ Party or PKK). This may be considered an important demerit of not only Kurdish and Turkish Studies but social and political sciences in general. In this special issue, we aim to address what may be less a gap in …
Reassembling the Political
One of the most important secular political movements in the Middle East, the Kurdistan Workers Party (PKK) underwent a profound transformation in the 2000s. What the PKK has experienced in this period was a comprehensive restructuration of its organization, ideology and political-military struggle, changing its course towards a project of radical democracy. In this article we explore the content of this new project, and its practical implication…
The Kurdistan Workers Party and a New Left in Turkey
One of the banners the left had been marching behind in the 1970s was that of a ‘Fully Independent Turkey!’ – and yet, while these radical voices evaluated Turkey’s status as that of a semi-colony (of Western capitalist imperialism), it had turned a blind eye to Turkey’s own role as itself a colonizing country, vis-à-vis Kurdistan. In this article, we will discuss the contentious relationship between the PKK and the left, and the critique of the …
Migration as Movement and Multiplace Life
Discussing recent trends and developments in migration and mobility affecting what may be referred to as a ‘reconstitution’ of villages, this paper discusses the changing character of rural settlement and settlement patterns in Turkey today. The binary division of rural and urban is questioned through a dialectical/relational approach to settlement formation, while settlement is defined by relation to (human) movement, itself understood as incorp…
Le peuplement comme politiques
« Peuplement »... Au premier abord, la notion semble évoquer des temps révolus, où des États en formation ou en expansion s’employaient à peupler des territoires considérés comme « vides » ou dont la population était jugée inadaptée, justifiant ainsi leur colonisation. La notion a pourtant refait surface ces vingt dernières années en France, pour qualifier l’action des pouvoirs publics visant à intervenir sur la répartition spatiale de population…
Commodification and the Social Commons
This article focuses on two ways in which smallholders-rural families, the peasantry-are responding to the contemporary neoliberal environment in Turkey by resisting commodification. This resistance, which takes place both by definition, insofar as smallholders refuse to enter, or properly conform to, the logic of capital, and in terms of its characteristics, values and practices of autonomy and sharing, is located in the context of two sites or …
K urds and the PKK
Comprising some thirty to forty million people, the Kurds constitute the fourth largest ethnicity in Western Asia. Divided between Turkey, Iran, Iraq, and Syria, Kurdistan is located in the northern part of the Middle East. A sense of national belonging among the Kurds emerged during the course of the twentieth century; it was late and weak by comparison to nationalism among the neighboring Turks, Arabs, and Persians. After the disintegration of …
Technological Mediation and Power
This article focuses on the power of technological mediation from the point of view of autonomist Marxism (Hardt, Negri, Virno, Berardi, Lazzarrato). The first part of the article discusses the theories developed on technological mediation in postphenomenology (Ihde, Verbeek) and critical theory of technology (Feenberg) with regard to their respective power perspectives and ways of coping with relations of power embedded in technical artifacts an…
Communal Democracy
The article engages with the question of self-governance and its implications for the concept of citizenship in Rojava. A short overview of the historical development of the political idea of democratic autonomy applied in Rojava is given, a model that claims to be on the way to creating a stateless model of radical democracy whose realisation involves forms of emancipation of the citizen, from a subject of a state to an active participant. The s…
Making sense
When research gives voice to groups or people who are considered “deviant” this can lead to the charge that research is biased. In this paper, I will discuss the issue of bias in relation to my own work on the PKK. I will argue that the accusation of bias is related to a hierarchy of voices, in which some voices are considered more credible than others. I will furthermore argue that when we want to understand how particular actors make sense of t…
Fitomejoramiento y racionalidad social
This article looks at how the generation of a cultivar may have unintended results forged as a plant breeding project is conceived and organized. Specifically, we investigate how a social rationality immersed in the scientific programs of modern agriculture guided the design of a new cultivar of lupine (Lupinus mutabilis Sweet), wherein which other seeds, rationales, spaces and actors were excluded. To develop this argument, we employ two methodo…
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