Deconstruction of religious thought in Islam

Allama Muhammad Iqbal (1875 to 1938 CE) stood at the cusp of modernity in British India. As the “poet visionary” and “spiritual father” of Pakistan, his role as an anti-colonial intellectual who “dreamed” of carving out an independent Muslim homeland from British India is thoroughly ingrained in the popular imagination, state institutions, and political rhetoric. Other than Jinnah, the political “founder” of Pakistan, no other figure enjoys such heroic, mythic status. Scholars of Islam and modernity have treated and cited him as a preeminent Muslim modernist globally. His role as a leading Pan-Islamist with Jamal-ud-din Afghani and Syed Qutub is unquestioned and his prominence as Indian Muslim political modernist is unrivalled. Indeed, “few people have ever disputed his power”11 M. Dorraj, “The intellectual dilemmas of a Muslim modernist: Politics and poetics of Iqbal,” The Muslim World 85 (1995), 266–79: 266. and Iqbal’s name is invoked as a moral authority22 E. Durkheim, Sociology and Philosophy. Translated by D.F. Pocock, trans. D. F. Pocock, 2nd ed. (Abingdon: Routledge, 2010 [1924]). to this day. In addition to his 12,000 verses of Urdu and Persian poetry, Iqbal famously published six English language lectures under the title “Reconstruction of Religious Thought in Islam” in 1930 (a seventh was added in editions since 1934). These lectures have stood as a testament to his significance for those invoking “liberal” Islam.33 R. Hassan, “Introduction,” in Muhammad Iqbal: Essays on the Reconstruction of Modern Muslim Thought, ed. H. C. Hillier and B. B. Koshul (Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press, 2015). See also M. Q. Zaman, Islam in Pakistan: A History (Princeton University Press, 2018: Ch. 2). The lectures have influenced Muslim intellectuals around the world, from Dr. Ali Shariati (ideologue of the Iranian revolution) to Dr. Fazlur Rahman in Pakistan to Dr. Tariq Ramadan (the noted European Islamic reformer) today. They remain a persistent reference point in the modern academic study of Islam44 F. Rahman, Islam and Modernity: Transformation of an Intellectual Tradition (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1984); H. C. Hillier and B. B. Koshul, eds., Muhammad Iqbal: Essays on the Reconstruction of Modern Muslim Thought (Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press, 2015). and, indeed, South Asian Islam.55 M. Q. Zaman, Islam in Pakistan. However, less discussed is the fact that four years after publishing Reconstruction, Iqbal wrote an essay in a newspaper entitled Qadianis and Orthodox Muslims denouncing the community of the Ahmadiyya as heretics, a charge he reiterated a year later in a written exchange with the Hindu, Indian nationalist, Pandit Jawaharlal Nehru. Iqbal used the term “heretic” to describe the Ahmadiyya 30 times in these two English-language essays, leaving no doubt as to his views on the matter. Now, the Ahmadiyya were considered heterodox virtually since the community was established by Mirza Ghulam Ahmad in 1880 in the town of Qadian in British Indian Punjab. A decade or so later, Ahmad’s claim of receiving revelation as a “prophet” was roundly condemned by Muslims worldwide. Although Ahmad used this term in a of Islamic he and his were of Religious Thought and 2nd ed. University Press, to the of of the Iqbal’s this have the and by since in in Pakistan the community in and R. after the The Ahmadiyya in Islam and the state of the Ahmadiyya community in in and Muslim and in Pakistan University Press, of The of The and the Politics of Religious in Pakistan Press, of the Ahmadiyya in Pakistan: The modern in Islamic In in of by C. and H. The of in the of South Sociology of Islam In Pakistan, the community was by in of to describe in Sociology of of the Ahmadiyya in Iqbal is cited as in and popular is no for by of since Iqbal’s on for that in a out by and in the of and as modern on R. The on and the Politics of University Press, to the Iqbal’s moral to his of the Ahmadiyya for modern South Asian Iqbal’s on to he his to the Ahmadiyya and the of The is to at his in of to the modern of Islam on As famously in his is by who is and the of that that a of the The political of Iqbal’s of is also since he Now, that the of the British in India and was condemned and by Muslim at the However, the of from the of that The the and political on the Ahmadiyya were from Islam in British India and Pakistan, and the of to of those after In as a study is that that Islam in the M. Q. Zaman, Islam in Pakistan, no to in this the in an of a to that the of in British India. such as the modern the state from and However, the of those by or the of that in of and the of that in a by to a of as famously E. with a of that an the the other the of also the of in a that that political to of in South Asian and and in South Asian Islam since University Press, the of Iqbal’s the Ahmadiyya to describe the of the of institutions, the M. Islam and Muhammad on and the of the Muslim that of for Iqbal’s of these in and a to in the of These the role of and the of and The the A History of the University Press, and the and of the B. to of 30 Mirza Ghulam Ahmad of Qadian to in 1880 that he to the of Muslims in British M. India published by Islam In he Muslims to under his and a for of the The the of as an Islamic in and an in this H. “The The Muslim World Ghulam Ahmad four on to as of the on a that a of the he to as to by a title for the a of the Muhammad and his Ahmad the title of used by for the and this claim in his Ahmad to the of Islamic to that the to his in the and a claim to today. on a Muslim of years and in H. in His and the trans. is a and by Muslims and in in The of a The of this claim was by Ghulam Ahmad’s to have revelation that he was a claim a Muslims that Muhammad was the of the by The to this on of the reference to Muhammad as and of a in he he was the of the The as that Muhammad was the in of a of by was after his in is in Ahmad’s in the is in as However, of is to is on As a have on the of is with from and is in Urdu also as and that Muhammad is the or of to the claim on a to the In the of Islamic was a on the of of the is the and the and political Muslim on Mirza Ghulam Ahmad and state Pakistan was in the Ahmadiyya at the Ghulam Ahmad’s the community out of Indian Qadian to in Pakistan, and to a and in the of Pakistan and and of community the a in the Ahmadiyya The of Pakistan treated as under to Muslims and as political Other in the of Muslim In an that Ahmadiyya of the and and The Ahmadiyya from or in the name of and Islamic Islamic the of or of of in Pakistan: A study of (1995), M. and the of the Ahmadiyya community in (1995), R. Islam and the Ahmadiyya University Press, of as Muslims with by under The to from of or and to in on The community this leading to of the six in Pakistan is by and state of Ahmadiyya Muslim in the name of R. to to The H. from Pakistan and at six in However, around the world, in Muslim and as as such as and South of the Ahmadiyya in for the and for the Ahmadiyya such as the of Pakistan Iqbal wrote a essay in entitled Qadianis and Orthodox the to to the Iqbal’s was that the Ahmadiyya as with the of Qadianis is a in as as that Muslims other of Muslims Muslim as as is Iqbal to the is a of of the of Iqbal’s Islamic is with of or of C. eds., of in A on Iqbal was to to Ahmadiyya to as Iqbal’s preeminent in was the political of a modern Muslim state by the as a political Although Iqbal was famously and as a is no doubt that he considered the to the political for the Muslim in South The of Muhammad Iqbal: Islam and in India University Press, with his of an Muslim as those who were In by the the political of Pakistan, Jinnah, on in that those Muslims treated as such in the of Pakistan. Iqbal a of on political to such as the of the in modern Muslim political in a Indian or the of in a In he and considered of Islamic or in that Islamic is to and The of Muhammad Iqbal: However, Iqbal of an he other of Muslims as His reference to this is in this essay and so for that an Muslim is an is of Iqbal’s political such as the by to the that the Islamic of for Iqbal’s views The of Muhammad Iqbal: that Iqbal also considered the to Iqbal wrote he that in a is the as and that of the Iqbal on Muslim and A to M. Islam and These with that have a of Islamic and a from a heterodox or in an of of Iqbal’s is Muslims for at the an for a Muslim so Iqbal’s views of the as a political His was for Islamic South and in a of Muslim is that Iqbal in six years after the by Mirza Ghulam “The Ahmadiyya The Allama Iqbal an The at point to the community as of Islamic and the as the modern Indian in the as of the “The Ahmadiyya to Iqbal the community in on and condemned the essay in Iqbal’s intellectual other that he later such as However, he the on In Indian Pandit Jawaharlal on the by that Iqbal’s of to have as and other Muslim were and to for “The of The Modern of to Iqbal was the Ahmadiyya considered Iqbal’s of Islamic was and after he on the Ahmadiyya and Muslims Iqbal’s in was the essay Islam and in he the of and on the political His that the Ahmadiyya Muslim on in that those who him In the Mirza out that such were out of and were to the Ahmadiyya by other an established of the of M. The by the Ahmadiyya Muslim to the of Pakistan Islam Iqbal’s is that a Muslim two of and of to other Islam these two The is considered of the of the was an of in the Iqbal out to to the other four as in these In of his political Iqbal was a that he a was the to to that a of in who to a as The of a out of an so is that Iqbal’s the entitled The of the and However, is less on is that the of the as a in of a on the of that The to that in Iqbal’s in the he to the in as of the of the and of the M. Islam and In Iqbal’s cited his for Muslim The of as Muslims as a to his that to the of M. The Reconstruction of Religious Thought in ed. two for Iqbal’s of the of the The and is that Iqbal’s prominence his an cited for or for or the in the of the on the As the and in Pakistan as Iqbal’s to the Ahmadiyya out of the of Muslim Indeed, Iqbal is to as an in the of the in that in the the Ahmadiyya as as the at the Iqbal’s of the Ahmadiyya as a also Iqbal he with in political to that the Ahmadiyya the of Islam of Islamic The is Iqbal’s of for him such a is in the of and the to to the of ed. and of Iqbal Muhammad in this Iqbal was with to Indian Muslims a of an that he A the Religious of Muhammad Iqbal the Muslim Muhammad and the Modern E. “The in Iqbal’s in Muhammad Iqbal: Essays on the Reconstruction of Modern Muslim Thought, ed. H. C. Hillier and B. B. Koshul (Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press, 2015). he by and the to that a of to as as a from the of India. was the of Iqbal’s since he the in his of the The on is to that this is from his on the the two have A an of to of the Ahmadiyya from the of this is the in South Asian the intellectual of Iqbal is to of in Pakistan. the of the is a the of with less than two years he so that to that he for of years in the for that of in he M. The of is that the of Iqbal’s of Muslim in a of the Muslim in South on of the In the essays, as of for this and so of the Muslim from the in with and no other to this the of and in the and of of at an of is by and of his is an and by the of other of M. Iqbal in Islamic as a term from Islam he as a with a to an independent on a M. His of Islamic for the of as in the of As an Iqbal cited an who of and and who a on the later of as as on to is the of Iqbal in his essay as of the as the of in modern Islam” also of modern Islam Ahmad and Jamal-ud-din Afghani to with Ghulam The by Muslims as who with as the of the Islam and modernity his that and of Iqbal modern and to study such as to the of the Indian Muslims have in to the he for a study of the of by and that the views of to by of Muslims as the of and by Ahmad In his is by and he of such as the of the Muslim also to and the to Islamic in India as the of as a of in to that of considered and as Mirza Ghulam Ahmad in the of is that Iqbal’s of is in he as modern used to Ahmad also in his reference were he or in European for Ahmad’s the term and The modern to for in a that Now, Iqbal’s to as that he to political and in he of as a of is for the is a and on the that he as for in India. The is or on that Iqbal out that the of the is the of the a of and Iqbal for from in The is that Muslims and in of as to a of the and of the The is that Muslims have on in to the who to the these for These as is for and is these that he and Afghani on a In the Iqbal to these as to the in and in he and for is to and he is that the this state of as a to Ahmad out to a in and so that the of Islam” to “The modern is than the that is the term the of in also that Muslims have no for Modern for of and no for a and as in of was is in to the of and modern The is of to or is that and to people is and to Iqbal for or from the of the a that have the of an of also who that this to and as a in the of modern Islam” Iqbal Ahmad’s as a since he Islam as a for with in or in the of in and the of the is in this that Islam with the of modern is Iqbal’s political or as is that in The point is that in is invoked in a that a to the of the University Press, to as of a Iqbal’s as as of the he a point in to the as a the and a to the of as a of as other to the as is that the to the In is modern for to a and of Indian Islam that Iqbal as his of an and modern for for his from who a of the of B. and Muhammad Iqbal,” in Muhammad Iqbal: Essays on the Reconstruction of Modern Muslim Thought, ed. H. C. Hillier and B. B. Koshul (Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press, the modern Muslim is a of or to to The modern Indian in an in a of and in a Iqbal for to his with his of as at in The to the is an Muslim who to and of Iqbal’s views of also to of in the of with a of (the Islamic of or Iqbal’s modern Muslim as an and in to with and that the is and the or that is the of is the of and the of the of a out to a a of an other the community is the of used to or those who used to the R. and his to Iqbal is to virtually the political of no less than was this of the the of and the other an of B. to of 30 The of to for discussed for is to that is modern also In such is for and as in Islamic M. The of in Islamic by University of Press, is the of with the is by Ahmad and by Islamic a of the is the of Iqbal’s of as Iqbal Ahmad for the of people than is is to under the of Muhammad Iqbal: and Routledge, is his political he of is for the Muslims to to is a is an and the people with a to and In this Iqbal’s on his political in an In a on the on out that in the the of is out political in is out of The the The a and by a that a The term and in have a of was a As and were in to by the to a the as and as modern is that in this a was and and and as a of that with also as a that the is a to the and than or a to that this the figure of the in by the and Indeed, his point is that the figure of the the Islam as is of The the Islam is the Other by of as a for the Islam in a to in as an of Islam Islam is in this as a of the that to Islam as the in European and at the as the and of the or the The term to with of and so of this with the and was of The was to this with the to from by in of the by political and so on by in “The of in British Indian of the South of South Asian The and with the and in with the of of the the on the was that the and no in the today. was the of the the As on as a political was a The the The of the term from the was by a of the to The were and of was to the of The of the for the of in that for in The of the in in The of a to in this by and that the political and the an other who the so to Other for the of with no or that a the who is and in a no and no to that a and of the of the Iqbal is after the that the is that Pakistan in and the of the of the that he in Iqbal such that is he that were to he that have no significance him the of a to Iqbal’s that the for Islam in India was to and political in the for a to Islam” for The added the of a political in a The is Iqbal out that of a or a community to a of Islam for the Muslim point of a In Iqbal the for Islam in is the of of and to Islam this in point to a the of the of the and political of the and the of the of and The is a of the a of and Iqbal that this that from the of the is is a of the Islamic popular with and with of In of Iqbal political for he as his by a is as from the of Iqbal’s for a of the political and the of an such a is to India as a and the in as However, his is and the of the he is is as in the of the the of the a of is the of Islam that out the A for Iqbal the Muslim Indian he is to with a that for and by the of Islam” Muslim the the other the by and the Indian Muslim is and to for the of the The and have a and for a The have by the of and in of The Indian who to for a of the who to that language of a and is in this that Iqbal’s modern the that of the of was to in an that Other the Indian Muslim or the Indian who to In the of the Muslim by of Iqbal Ahmad as he the of of as a of is a to that the two in a of The the Iqbal to two in Islam that have he to the of the of and of the These the in and the Qadianis in However, he that to to than as no Muslims and other as a that this as on the and who and with the other the who on other no with him in him with him under the four in his he or written by was The for the of the is a to Iqbal for the and was by the in (the in in and by Muslim as in South is that Islam is the as or after Iqbal that the of in Islam” or that Islam is from the and is is that the Muslims and with other However, the from is of a The Ahmadiyya the The for is that a that a and that on of the on the of the The is to the that to of the As he of the by the of is B. that the Other is as this an in a as that a as an and, that to that is a on the other of the is a the on this of the the on of the as and is in the on the as popular or B. as the of these and of in on a with and the and a of to and to that this so in is also in the indeed, modern to B. so that the of is as the is in and in that the was as a The were in a the state of as a for the was an of to with with a as of trans. (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, out that in this was no to a the and state of the and to a of the the of a As a was in the as to a that in his of by of the as an A of is and in such as of and is a the of as that he the people as a were or in the that and in the of the of the of that have in of the of a by for the who that people as a is to the in the of in the European D. and and (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, Now, and the in and in the were from those in South and were for European modernity to in and the a and is famously of out as the of the with the of and the University of Press, However, South after the was an a was in as for with to state of “The of was also in the of to the that this is the of Islamic to this day. British after the an India with with and the an India the on the and was the in India or the as was in the or in and were and the of as on an of the and an of that and people on the other were in or was as The of for were in the the was or The a in Indeed, the of by the in the with at the of and in the of the to a of by of a and an of the out in his that this is the of and is the of and a that this of a by of and is to as a of the by a of that Islam by point is that Muslims as that Islam is considered to so that Muslims European by Islam and European as The is in of and the to the and to as with in the the of of Iqbal’s on of these to an and the community As his preeminent is with as a of this is a of Mirza Ghulam Ahmad and his who of the that Muslim is Persian a the of is to in he an is of this in the Indian of the is considered a that in Iqbal the essay that those of the of to Iqbal is in the The also by that is and that Muhammad is the of the of those who have from to in and in to to the of is the Iqbal later in the Iqbal that a the or of these Iqbal to that of is to a a As and the Ahmadiyya have the The on of the Iqbal the Islamic of of of the is of and the other the Ahmadiyya and who Iqbal’s of of and a A of Iqbal’s is to Mirza Ahmad as an in and so The for him is the modernity and the is of this is Iqbal’s modern that As a of is considered on the other of the the as on the other of the the of and is Iqbal the to the of an is the of this of the is on the the other was or to the people of the considered or or of these was or to of the and in the of the the have from the moral of The have to In the for Muslims in Pakistan to the Ahmadiyya of or to to the Ahmadiyya in Pakistan and for by a of Religious in his as a in leading to the of two the Ahmadiyya in the in the name of no at such an ever for an to a Muslim to is an is to the Ahmadiyya in Pakistan or the to for the to the other is so a of a or a leading from to and a of of Iqbal’s on by the leading Indian Muslim intellectual of his and of considered to of the modern Muslim worldwide. His of stood the of as the of South Asian Muslim his of the Ahmadiyya as of that to on Iqbal’s political for the that such to Iqbal’s on The of these is Iqbal’s of and and of with The is the in the of a the two in The is the of an with and of these of the Muslim were later in Pakistan. is a in of as the of in modern as in British and Muslim the and the Ahmadiyya the is than were were for the of of a the as is a by or by In is a that the on in the that the the India and the The and of under University Press, Ch. D. ed. the the or the the and R. and India and Routledge, of these of the of and the of his essays, Iqbal Ahmad and his community as for that Islam and of Iqbal’s of is so in the of that the of The he to the of Muslim by of of from the of However, his of of in Islam for the Ahmadiyya in the of the as with in the of is of the the Ahmadiyya were at the of Islam by Iqbal

Deconstruction (building · Epistemology · Islam · Theology · Education and Islamic Studies · Engineering · Islamic Studies and History · Philosophy · Politics and Conflicts in Afghanistan, Pakistan, and Middle East · Religious studies · Religious Studies

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