Codes of museum ethics and the financial pressures on museums

Modern warfare and increasing international trade raise ethical questions concerning the protection of works of art and archaeological objects. With the end of the First World War, there developed a growing concern about the loss of national art and treasures. The Second World War confronted museums with fundamental problems like the repatriation of looted, or otherwise misappropriated, museum collections and cultural property. In reaction to these emerging problems, conventions like ‘The Hague Convention’ of 1954, for the protection of cultural centres in case of an armed conflict, and the ‘UNESCO Convention on the Means of Prohibiting and Preventing the Illicit Import, Export and Transfer of Cultural Property’ were adopted. In addition, ethical codes were developed and adopted, as happened first in the United States of America in 1925. In 1960 the United States adopted the ‘Standards of Practice and Professional Relationships for Conservators’ which were mainly concerned with ethical problems in conservation and in the care of museums and gallery collections. These standards were revised in 1980. As in other countries, the United Kingdom, through the Museums Association, developed ethical codes. The ‘Code of Conduct for Museum Curators’ with its system of Rules and Guidelines for Professional Conduct (adopted 1974), as well as the ‘Code of Practice for Museum Authorities’ (adopted 1977), are central elements in museum ethics in the United Kingdom today. Two separate papers were developed for governing bodies in museums and galleries and for their curatorial staff because their functions differ fundamentally from each other. Ethical codes gained an increasing recognition and today in the United Kingdom the ethical standards are realized through the ‘Museums and Galleries Registration Scheme’ and the activities of the Museums Training Institute. However, codes were established because it was felt that there was an urgent need to codify ethical principles in museum affairs. When it was realized that the ‘UNESCO Convention on the Means of Prohibiting and Preventing the Illicit Import, Export and Transfer of Ownership of Cultural Property’ of 1970 and the ‘European Convention on the Protection of the Archaeological Heritage’ were not being satisfactorily adopted, ICOM issued a Statement in 1970 (see Boylan, 1977, p. 106; concerning the aspects of the illicit international trade in Art see Merryman and Elsen, 1987, pp. 46-76). The development of the ‘ICOM Code of Professional

Archaeology · Art · Business · Visual arts · Archaeological Research and Protection · Art History and Market Analysis · Conservation Techniques and Studies · Cultural Industries and Urban Development · History · Museology · Museums and Cultural Heritage · Finance

• Sponsorship and Other Fundraising for Heritage Organizations

  Open Access•Natasa Glarakis•The University of Western Ontario…•2011

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• Políticas de aquisição de acervo

  Open Access•Leonardo Da Silva Vieira•Revista CPC•2019

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• A space of negotiation

  Open Access•Jenny Kidd, Rosie Cardiff•Museum and Society•2017

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• Debating contemporary museum ethics

  Open Access•Jenny Kidd•International Journal of Heritage…•2017

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• Ethical Values in the Age of Science

  H J N Horsburgh, Paul Roubiczek•The Philosophical Quarterly•1970

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• Disposals from museum collections

  Adrian Babbidge•Museum Management and Curatorship•1991

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• Deaccessioning The American perspective

  M Malaro, Marie C Malaro•Museum Management and Curatorship•1991

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• Deaccessioning

  Miller, Shazia Rafiullah Miller et al.•Museum Management and Curatorship•1991

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• Arts Administration and Management

  Kent Neely, Harvey Shore•Theatre Journal•1988

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