Primate social behavior

Much has changed in our understanding of primate social behavior since the pioneering naturalistic field study conducted by Clarence Ray Carpenter (1934) on the behavior and social relations of mantled howler monkeys in Panama. These changes reflect a combination of interacting factors, including: (i) shifts in disciplinary perspectives; (ii) advances in theory, methods, and analytical (including computational) power; and (iii) a dramatic increase in the diversity of primate taxa that have been studied across space and over time. Together, these changes have broadened our comparative perspectives about primates, and challenged basic longstanding concepts such as those about the stability of group size and composition, and the role of kinship in structuring primate social relationships. They have also stimulated new considerations of behavioral adaptation, variation, and flexibility (Strier, 2017a). After a remarkable expansion in primate behavioral and ecological studies over the past half-century, we have reached an exciting new threshold of understanding about the range of flexible behavioral patterns that primates exhibit in response to local ecological and demographic conditions. This understanding is poised to lead to the development of new dynamic comparative models that encompass both interspecific and intraspecific variation in primate behavioral ecology, and thus will provide insights into primate social evolution and adaptive potential (Strier, 2017b). At the same time, however, we are facing an impending crisis. Some 60% of primate taxa are already threatened with extinction, and 75% of primate populations are experiencing dangerous declines (Estrada et al., 2017). Accelerating anthropogenic pressures from habitat loss and hunting, coupled with irreversible climate change, extreme weather events, and the spread of zoonotic diseases, are now escalating the risks to primates at local, regional, and global scales. Urgent concerns about the long-term prospects for the survival of primates cast a formidable shadow over what would otherwise be an unguarded optimism about the future of the field. The realities of anthropogenic impacts on primate populations and their habitats, though cause for alarm, have nonetheless led to new insights into the inconsistencies between predictions about behavioral adaptations derived from socioecological theory and the actual behavior patterns we observe (Janson, 2000; Strier, 2003a, 2003b; Thierry, 2008; Koenig & Borries, 2009). Indeed, a major challenge in contemporary primate behavioral ecology revolves around identifying whether the behavior patterns that presumably evolved under very different ecological and demographic conditions in the past still continue to be adaptive today. Increasing sensitivities to the altered conditions under which the majority of primates now live and to the high level of behavioral flexibility that many species exhibit are stimulating us to think about social evolution over ecological time. At the same time, we are becoming increasingly more reflective about how well our knowledge of primates might be usefully applied toward conservation measures on their behalf (Lee, 2010; Riley, 2013). I have divided the body of this Perspective into three sections corresponding to the past, the present, and what I envision to be the greatest challenges for the future of primate behavioral ecology. The historical context of primate behavioral studies has been thoroughly reviewed elsewhere (e.g., Strum & Fedigan, 2000; Kelley & Sussman, 2007), so my aim here is mainly to establish a framework for interpreting how we reached our present state of knowledge about primate social behavior. Unfortunately, space constraints prevent mention of more than a very small subset of the many important discoveries that have been influential in expanding our knowledge base and in shaping the field (from my perspective as a U.S.-trained biological anthropologist and primatologist). I then draw on both historical and contemporary perspectives and achievements to anticipate the next major new directives. It will be immediately apparent that my own research interests are biased toward observational studies of wild primates. However, it is also the case that both experimental field studies and studies of provisioned and captive primates have played significant roles in shaping our understanding of primates and I suspect that these approaches may have yet even greater roles to play as the status of so many of the world's wild primates becomes increasingly uncertain. Over the late twentieth century, the study of primate social behavior shifted from natural history-like narratives to become increasingly focused on the hypotheses-driven systematic collection of quantifiable data, which are now also commonly supplemented with non-invasive hormonal, physiological, genetic, or microbial samples to gain insights into the underlying mechanisms and consequences of behavior. Nonetheless, the early original descriptions of the behaviors of wild primates at the time they were first observed scientifically afford vitally important documentation, and many of these reports are now also of tremendous (but perhaps not yet fully recognized) value for the historical perspectives they offer into primates whose populations and habitats have undergone dramatic changes in the intervening years. One such example comes from Carpenter's mantled howler monkey data, which provided not only the first scientific descriptions of the behavior of these monkeys in the wild, but also the baseline for documenting a 48% decline in the population between 1933 and 1951, with yellow fever considered to be a possible cause (Collias & Southwick, 1952). This early quantitative account of yellow fever's potentially devastating impact on howler monkeys is now providing essential historical context and comparative perspectives for interpreting the impact of more recent yellow fever outbreaks, such as those that have been responsible for the deaths of thousands of brown howler monkeys in southeastern Brazil in 2008–2009 and 2016–2017 (Bicca-Marques et al., 2017). Demographic variables such as group and population size, composition, and density are known to directly affect individual social and reproductive options, so changes in numbers on the order of magnitude induced by outbreaks of yellow fever (and other zoonotic diseases) have obvious important implications for interpretations of the inter- and intraspecifc variation in behavior patterns we observe today. Moreover, these impacts from zoonotic diseases are expected to increase with climate change and further human into primate habitats (Estrada et al., 2017). Carpenter's (1934) first as a for other in to historical and were also then with at Carpenter an in the field wild howler and to for a of in the to study in the in and to study in with more behavioral of the with from the field to Carpenter to on what to as studies of wild primates. conducted a significant field study on in in the late which as a of the observational field and essential for in of the for the Carpenter to other primate habitat and from a to in with more than which the of the at to the behavioral study of wild primates. Carpenter for influential role in the of contemporary field also an important to is known as of and the of behavior in the naturalistic social context & I have on Carpenter in to of the historical that and provisioned studies of primates. These are important to what we now about primate social behavior comes from a combination of these Indeed, Carpenter's study on the led by a of at the of and also an to from the of of the and It is to these early which more on the collection and of primates than on the of the behavior of live with the conservation concerns of contemporary primate behavioral ecology. also a a and of the for the of or and a of the and influential in behavioral studies of wild primates into 1951, these with the that to from the the and elsewhere in at the between field and captive behavioral studies Kelley & Sussman, the late and and their long-term studies of they the to their study as et al., and to the social and of primate with a and study of the social behavior of in their of the it our to considerations of the social and with and considerations of the ecological in the that the with first to to study in for to about the for under the of as an at but a of at in order to human 2017). After many other field the from and to that other that of & Sussman, the early of the for comparative primate behavioral studies (e.g., and been It also around this time that the of for which been from a for primate behavior this as a of the of on the and about primate social and ecological behavior that were to (and in to the Carpenter's only reviewed in the in the for a on and then in the context of the about of early behavioral field studies the ecological context in which the were to those by were to the ecological conditions of their studies to those of on species to such an that even and pioneering behavioral descriptions were considered to be in of a or the were on in a their behavior may have been by the of of on more in wild & The different behavior patterns by under different ecological and demographic conditions to in over how to the behavior patterns for a One of these early focused on behavioral between and & in the over the variation observed in the of behavior in which as an reproductive under but not demographic conditions the of the their to a immediately their in the of to be more in & The for behavior patterns that these may but in the historical context of an for primate behavioral studies that focused on comparative insights into human social the of by at the species At that comparative it about the and in the behavioral to those of other such as that of were with behavioral between and human primates, on ecological and on the of intraspecific behavioral variation that the perspectives to (Strier, These perspectives to in an early comparative in the study of primates not be at the of the understanding of behavior. we to our at understanding the many which to behavior and the of and the many possible which will the of first about understanding the many that social with the underlying of for understanding behavior and and the of the models of the evolution and ecology of primate & about to the same also with what other such as and were also about the of behavioral variation in Strier, 2017b). The early comparative models of primate (e.g., & et al., were in their at identifying patterns of interspecific variation also intraspecific variation in social behavior. However, they were also of the of for behavioral data, the of that and the of species that been advances were as of these The of a it to from study with those from This by many early in Kelley & Sussman, 2007), but not fully of This the for behaviors and on that were to the of and that the for of and of behavior across The of behavioral also stimulated increasingly behavioral One example of these of focused on the shifts in the individual and that in focused on of primate social such as the of (e.g., reviewed by and the of and which be in of (e.g., & the and systematic of behavioral were also with new for the mechanisms underlying behavior in that be across studies of the same and different species and across from to the field. insights on from the social and reproductive of behavior (e.g., et al., to the social and biological in and & have from the of observational and from or more & The of on the of natural and into primate behavioral ecology also a The framework for many of the and ecological already been by and by the these were well on their to into comparative of from to to and other primates, (e.g., et al., & & The that individual behavioral to and are by pressures of the they on that behavioral and across and those of individual were in of individual social and reproductive whether these were and and has of the implications that these about the of our own social as well as those of other primates et al., Koenig et al., about of behavior in response to what as of (e.g., at as they were and by the the of The that of human social behavior been by pressures also to between and biological (e.g., the over the of behavior across populations of a of what by as an et al., et al., reviewed in 2009). with these however, were insights into such as and the of and the of to around such in to the of and in theory in and in primate behavioral ecology more (e.g., Fedigan, Strum & Fedigan, The underlying of and ecological models of behavioral an even greater on the social behavior of primates in their habitats and social than (e.g., However, observational field studies of wild populations still only a of One response to these the of experimental field response the development of for the behavioral of wild to of that then be the and of field were those to how monkeys to of to different of which their and to from group which provided into their of and the of such as on their social & about behavior derived from theory only be with observational and even only in species in which in their with both the of social and the of are to et al., Indeed, comparative that are more to change under demographic conditions than other of et al., However, predictions about in these or in were not from observational of about and the in be to be more to on than that from their into were still to about the social of and these The development of for and from the of wild primates essential to advances in our understanding of the structuring of primate and (e.g., et al., et et al., of were also for predictions about reproductive and in a range of primates These studies have provided insights into such as the of social stability and on (e.g., et al., and the potential role of and other on in (e.g., et al., At the same time, however, is now from both behavioral and studies that kinship is not essential for the development and of long-term social (e.g., et al., 2017). to the of and the expansion of the diversity of species and populations studied has been a and only primate for more than 60% of field with only monkey and & This is not to that comparative studies of other primates, even not they (e.g., However, even Carpenter's pioneering with howler naturalistic research on wild primates biased toward the and a of and of which were and the These it to whether and in behavior patterns were by ecological conditions or The only to these with new from a greater diversity of of provided a for a new of comparative studies on the behavioral ecology of primates about which or yet other (e.g., & focused on the in which variation in the and of which and the social to many in my in the I my research around predictions about social behavior on these study were the and They are now as and since have been as a the from the in my focused on other primate species about which known and on different of predictions about the of ecology on social behavior. these comparative has led to many in of what has become known as the socioecological (e.g., et al., & The of of comparative to for the of on behavior also an essential for about the evolution of behavioral adaptations & & with the comparative perspectives at the time, it increasingly that the that so in were not of the majority of primates (Strier, of the for to and the that primates to be across the than of the of the of behavioral to primates provided early for the of this & to the of systematic of behavioral and on from and ecological theory, the of is now in comparative of primate behavioral ecology. in our knowledge of the of behavior be in to advances in our understanding of primate as a of in The expansion of (from advances in has also to the of comparative to behavior patterns that be to as to those that reflect adaptations & their it is important to that these are analytical methods, not in and their for understanding patterns of social evolution is as by the of comparative behavioral as it is by the level of of the diversity of species across the primate the that in of primate an important framework which to patterns in other behavioral to social and social flexibility & et al., et al., affect to with and with potential and establish the baseline conditions for different patterns of and of species with greater social flexibility also to greater demographic and thus of intraspecific variation than other species & et al., Nonetheless, of species and how to variation have become increasingly in of which were at by conservation concerns of and patterns on social on is from in and the of by the in patterns for taxa and the of on the that both and patterns are by to affect individual social options, the of their to and the potential for with flexible patterns that be or or high of intraspecific variation in both across populations and populations over time It is around of and variation at both inter- and intraspecific that of the of contemporary primate behavioral ecology now in our for about social we are also now primates under different conditions than the under which we they contemporary is with the challenges the range and of inter- and intraspecific behavioral variation with intraspecific variation and and behavioral adaptations over ecological time. with for the variation in primate social behavior at both inter- and intraspecific has been a of primate by under of the The of this on the of the were to whether the longstanding were by new on physiological, and behavioral variation and are for conservation and the of of the habitat and population and for of the status of The led to the of a of species into the these were by species (e.g., and and or but also at the level of (e.g., the of these the of have been by those of a with the of primate species from species in to species in & and to increase to species (and as of early (Estrada et al., 2017). of these reflect the majority are the of the of species & 2017). over these have focused on whether they on by the to scientific of variation behavioral may have been from these have become increasingly for us in at of is the of which the of our behavioral and how we the of local ecological and demographic conditions the of on behavioral and the recent of and monkeys into has been on the of genetic, and of which with of behavioral variation et al., other (including and we still intraspecific comparative to be to whether ecological for behavioral now that they are as species with presumably the of intraspecific variation for interspecific variation is a in which primate has become to behavioral comparative for adaptations have of patterns across which the of intraspecific variation into or & This important of a behavioral and thus interspecific variation in adaptive (Strier, 2009). However, across space is a then of the of intraspecific variation is of in documenting and understanding intraspecific variation in primate behavioral ecology has from the comparative from studies of different and populations of the same species across and 2000; Strier, These comparative have provided insights into the of group and population (e.g., the role of in ecological conditions on changes in group and population size (e.g., & et al., and on behavioral to changes in demographic conditions (e.g., Strier, 2017a). Nonetheless, of behavioral and ecological variables across or populations provide perspectives on the range and of intraspecific variation, they are not for long-term which are for insights into underlying mechanisms of behavioral flexibility responsible for behavioral variation & 2010; Strier, 2017b). on intraspecific behavioral variation across and an obvious for understanding behavioral flexibility of such as primates, which are to and demographic conditions their individual the of behavioral from and populations is still only possible for a small of species that have been the of long-term studies & the to variation over time as well as we the same about the mechanisms of behavioral to ecological and demographic as were about a behavior from of a study group or The value of comparative for understanding intraspecific behavioral variation is from of the of variation in primate group which with the of in both and studies over time of are more with as is the then it that in primate group are more than The may reflect of demographic or between and with the challenge to whether are inter- or intraspecific patterns in behavioral to the of the or to the Demographic variation is and with over time. from in and the of by the from as in et with from species by study and species by are new for the data, as in the for a mantled howler monkey population on over a (Collias & Southwick, the for an group of on over a that to a and with et al., group from a different population that has since & in the original and is with a around it here to that variation in group size not group or population of the range and of and interspecific behavioral to demographic changes such as these have to and behavioral to in ecological of the at which these we that primates to changes in the of by combination of shifts in their or we not yet the range of intraspecific or the interspecific of to demographic changes (Strier, 2009). to apparent between predictions from socioecological theory and observed behavior patterns have a of in of ecological in primate is that the behavior of primates is by the of the in which they toward the in socioecological theory, also to us that we about how the by primates to those by their Some behavioral adaptations that were under different conditions may still be may reflect flexibility in their behavioral and yet may be under with consequences to ecological or & The challenges of about adaptations from the behavior of primates in small populations and altered habitats may be obvious but that not the case I to study in the early Indeed, discoveries about other primates, such as the and from studies were with about the potential of population size and or habitat and et al., The of anthropogenic pressures and the with which these impact primate populations and their habitats have to both the and into primate behavioral flexibility et al., 2017). with other of the to which behavior on the behavioral variation present in a population and on a combination of other potential constraints from the to the and demographic composition, to the and populations are to the variation which natural we are now increasingly at and behavior patterns as the for individual and the of these behaviors of for their over time. of these may the significant in behavior that have been in populations of et al., and et al., et al., but whether they reflect adaptive to ecological or demographic to be to the next of comparative studies of primate (and and for a new of in primate behavioral ecology will continue to be to the high level of behavioral flexibility that many species exhibit and will toward this flexibility into more models that be applied to their conservation et al., 2013). Indeed, behavioral might be well on the to becoming a level of understanding to but for that to we of and about conservation the of our from comparative models to case we to increase to case studies into comparative models that and it to however, to an to time to documenting and the behavioral and that have been in a that will be to future of (e.g., et al., At the same time, however, we not of theory, even though we to This will be a however, flexibility dynamic response which by be on the to which are (Strier, 2017b). of a in population offer potential to the interacting of individual flexibility to behavioral and demographic variables & Strier, of dynamic to demographic and social from of primate by & and first at the & are a of between social on the for as a of demographic variables the of of at of and population aim is to the of these changes and the on social state we that are mechanisms and on the sensitivities and of the social The same that account for between social & may also in intraspecific variation in social to and impacts of and hunting, are other to primates, such as climate change and about which we are only to Some of the early to the impact of climate change on primates models of their in response to challenges (e.g., et al., et al., consequences of changes in the of primate (e.g., et al., and habitats (e.g., et al., and the of climate on (e.g., et al., 2017). diseases are expected to primates at risks as human populations continue to on primate has already populations of et al., 2017). early the yellow fever to in southeastern Brazil of and thousands of many of which are to the and yet what this so or it spread so or what long-term consequences will such as climate change and human affect the of this primate populations that have been in size past habitat has in with or they in size, will their social and be the will be the impacts for of are species more than and how will and such as the we are change in response to the impacts of these suspect that this yellow fever may have local population of species this and we that other local of primate populations here and in other of the have already or are to other a and global the loss of at primate species already be (Estrada et al., 2017). it may still be possible to of these the original of population declines be we will also to to more of our knowledge about their behavior and from field and captive studies will be to increase our of knowledge about the and of and from wild populations be to the of 2017). of in and may be increasingly and our to naturalistic field studies may become increasingly I still an however, in than a I have a population of increase more than in size, and in the size and of the of and are to still have to we to the of primates, a I to (and past and for my I for the and for to the on that we and are in the of & Strier, I to and for their on an of this This with from a by the of

Biology · Evolutionary biology · Primate · Animal Behavior and Reproduction · Animal Vocal Communication and Behavior · Neuroscience · Primate Behavior and Ecology · Psychology

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  Open Access•Tae Seike•Primates•2026

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• Influence of habitat conditions on group size, social organization, and birth pattern of golden langur (Trachypithecus geei)

  Open Access•Joydeep Shil, Jihosuo Biswas et al.•Primates•2020

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• Aging in Non-Human Primate Society

  Open Access•Chris Gilleard•Anthropology & Aging•2023

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• A Primatologist’s Guide to Global Environmental Policies

  Open Access•Karen B Strier, Fabio Feldmann•International Journal of…•2026

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• The evolution of pair‐living, sexual monogamy, and cooperative infant care

  Open Access•Eduardo Fernandez‐duque, Maren Huck et al.•American Journal of Physical…•2020

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• The process of sub-culture propagation among Japanese macaques

  Open Access•Syunzo Kawamura•Primates•1959

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• Population density, social pathology, and behavioral ecology

  Open Access•Jim Moore•Primates•1999

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• The matriarchal social order in the minoo-B Group

  Open Access•Syunzo Kawamura•Primates•1958

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• Within-species differences in primate social structure

  Open Access•Colin A Chapman, Jessica M Rothman•Primates•2009

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• On the rank system in a natural group of Japanese monkey (I)

  Open Access•Masao Kawai•Primates•1958

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• The International Encyclopedia of Primatology

  Open Access•A Fuentes•International Encyclopedia of…•2017

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• The Comparative Method in Evolutionary Biology

  Paul Harvey, Paul H Harvey et al.•The comparative method in…•1991

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• How Monkeys See the World

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• Impending extinction crisis of the world’s primates

  Open Access•Alejandro Estrada, P A Garber et al.•Science Advances•2017

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• Evolution of social organization

  Open Access•Anthony Di Fiore, D Rendall•Proceedings of the National…•1994

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• Stepwise evolution of stable sociality in primates

  Open Access•Susanne Shultz, Christopher Opie et al.•Nature•2011

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• Forest living baboons in Uganda

  Open Access•T E Rowell•Journal of Zoology•1966

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• Why Are Diurnal Primates Living in Groups?

  C P Van Schaik•Behaviour•1983

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• Finite Social Space, Evolutionary Pathways, and Reconstructing Hominid Behavior

  Open Access•R A Foley, P C Lee•Science•1989

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• Kin Selection, Social Structure, Gene Flow, and the Evolution of Chimpanzees

  Open Access•Phillip A Morin, James J Moore et al.•Science•1994

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• An Ecological Model of Female-Bonded Primate Groups

  R W Wrangham•Behaviour•1980

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• Ecology, Sexual Selection, and the Evolution of Mating Systems

  Open Access•Stephen T Emlen, Lewis W Oring•Science•1977

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• The Relation between Ecology a Social Structure in Primates

  Open Access•John F Eisenberg, N A Muckenhirn et al.•Science•1972

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• The limited impact of kinship on cooperation in wild chimpanzees

  Open Access•Kevin E Langergraber, J C Mitani et al.•Proceedings of the National…•2007

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• On aims and methods of Ethology

  Open Access•N Tinbergen•Zeitschrift für Tierpsychologie•1963

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• The evolution of female social relationships in nonhuman primates

  Open Access•Elisabeth H M Sterck, David P Watts et al.•Behavioral Ecology and Sociobiology•1997

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• Contest and scramble competition

  Lynne A Isbell•Behavioral Ecology•1991

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• The Social Organisation of Antelope in Relation To Their Ecology

  P J Jarman•Behaviour•1974

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• Observational Study of Behavior

  Jeanne Altmann•Behaviour•1974

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• The Evolution of Reciprocal Altruism

  Robert L Trivers, Robert Trivers•The Quarterly Review of Biology•1971

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• Section of Anthropology

  Open Access•S L Washburn•Transactions of the New York…•1951

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• The Infanticide Controversy

  Amanda Rees•Infanticide Controversy•2009

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• Peacemaking among Primates

  Frans Β Μ De Waal, Frans B M De Waal•Peacemaking among Primates•1989

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• Primate Origins of Human Cognition and Behavior

  Open Access•Tetsuro Matsuzawa•Primate origins of human…•2001

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• How Different Are Robust and Gracile Capuchin Monkeys? An Argument for the Use of S apajus and C ebus

  Open Access•Jessica W Lynch Alfaro, José de Sousa e Silva et al.•American Journal of Primatology•2012

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• Advances in field‐based studies of primate behavioral endocrinology

  Open Access•Karen B Strier, Toni E Ziegler•American Journal of Primatology•2005

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• Why do orangutans leave the trees? Terrestrial behavior among wild Bornean orangutans ( Pongo pygmaeus wurmbii ) at Tuanan, Central Kalimantan

  Open Access•Alison M Ashbury, Mary Rose C Posa et al.•American Journal of Primatology•2015

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• Sharing space

  Open Access•P C Lee•American Journal of Primatology•2010

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• Orangutan behavior in Kutai National Park after drought and fire damage

  Open Access•Anne E Russon, Purwo Kuncoro et al.•American Journal of Primatology•2015

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• Primate socioecology, the lost dream of ecological determinism

  Open Access•B Thierry•Evolutionary Anthropology Issues…•2008

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• A guide to practical babooning

  Open Access•Louise Barrett•Evolutionary Anthropology Issues…•2009

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• Infanticide

  Open Access•Sarah Blaffer Hrdy, Charles H Janson et al.•Evolutionary Anthropology Issues…•1994

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• Primate socio-ecology

  Open Access•Charles H Janson•Evolutionary Anthropology Issues…•2000

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• Comparative methods for studying primate adaptation and allometry

  Open Access•C L Nunn, Robert A Barton•Evolutionary Anthropology Issues…•2001

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• A darwinian species definition and its implications

  Open Access•Clifford J Jolly•Evolutionary Anthropology Issues…•2014

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• The species in primatology

  Open Access•Colin P Groves, Colin Groves•Evolutionary Anthropology Issues…•2014

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• Madagascar's Lemurs

  Open Access•Ian Tattersall•Evolutionary Anthropology Issues…•2007

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• Primate taxonomy

  Open Access•Anthony B Rylands, Russell A Mittermeier•Evolutionary Anthropology Issues…•2014

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• The lost dream of ecological determinism

  Open Access•Andreas Koenig, Carola Borries•Evolutionary Anthropology Issues…•2009

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• How important are affiliation and cooperation? A reply to Sussman et al

  Open Access•Andreas Koenig, Carola Borries et al.•American Journal of Physical…•2006

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• Female transfer in primates

  Open Access•Jim Moore•International Journal of…•1984

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• The Implications of Primate Behavioral Flexibility for Sustainable Human–Primate Coexistence in Anthropogenic Habitats

  Open Access•Matthew R Mclennan, Noemi Spagnoletti et al.•International Journal of…•2017

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• Evolution of Primate Social Systems

  Open Access•Peter M Kappeler, C P Van Schaik•International Journal of…•2002

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• What does variation in primate behavior mean

  Open Access•Karen B Strier•American Journal of Physical…•2017

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• Importance of cooperation and affiliation in the evolution of primate sociality

  Open Access•Robert W Sussman, P A Garber et al.•American Journal of Physical…•2005

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• Primatology comes of age

  Open Access•Karen B Strier•American Journal of Physical…•2003

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• The promise of primatology

  Open Access•Sherwood L Washburn•American Journal of Physical…•1973

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• C. Raymond Carpenter, 1905–1975

  Open Access•Geza Teleki•American Journal of Physical…•1981

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• A field study of the Kenya baboon

  Open Access•Peter E Maxim, John Buettner‐janusch•American Journal of Physical…•1963

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• Myth of the typical primate

  Open Access•Karen B Strier•American Journal of Physical…•1994

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• A comparison of new and old world monkey social organizations and behavior

  Open Access•Irwin S Bernstein•American Journal of Physical…•1964

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• An academic genealogy on the history of American field primatologists

  Open Access•Elizabeth A Kelley, Robert W Sussman•American Journal of Physical…•2007

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• Molecular genetic approaches to the study of primate behavior, social organization, and reproduction

  Open Access•Anthony Di Fiore•American Journal of Physical…•2003

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• Female choice in nonhuman primates

  Open Access•Meredith F Small•American Journal of Physical…•1989

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• Clarence Ray Carpenter 1906–1975

  Open Access•John Buettner‐janusch•American Journal of Physical…•1976

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• Pan paniscus. Pigmy chimpanzee from south of the Congo river

  Open Access•Harold J Coolidge•American Journal of Physical…•1933

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• Sahara

  Open Access•E Nikita, David Mattingly et al.•American Journal of Physical…•2012

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• How old are chimpanzee communities? Time to the most recent common ancestor of the Y-chromosome in highly patrilocal societies

  Kevin E Langergraber, Carolyn Rowney et al.•Journal of Human Evolution•2014

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• Recent advances in noninvasive techniques to monitor hormone-behavior interactions

  Open Access•Patricia L Whitten, Diane K Brockman et al.•American Journal of Physical…•1998

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• A Field Study in Siam of the Behavior and Social Relations of the Gibbon (Hylobates Lar)

  Loren C Eiseley, C R Carpenter et al.•American Sociological Review•1941

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• Sociobiology

  Edward O Wilson•Sociobiology•2000

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• The Use and Abuse of Biology

  Marshall Sahlins•The use and abuse of biology•1976

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• Primate Life Histories and Socioecology

  Open Access•A Fuentes•American Anthropologist•2004

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• Primate Behavioral Ecology

  Open Access•Karen B Strier•American Anthropologist•2003

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• Science and the Successful Female

  Open Access•Linda Marie Fedigan•American Anthropologist•1994

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• Changing Assumptions in Primate Ecology

  Open Access•Alison F Richard•American Anthropologist•1981

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• Physical Anthropology and Primatology

  Open Access•Kinji Imanishi•American Anthropologist•1967

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• The Form and Function of Reconciliation in Primates

  Joan B Silk•Annual Review of Anthropology•2002

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• Spread of a Terrestrial Tradition in an Arboreal Primate

  Open Access•Fernanda P Tabacow, Sérgio L Mendes et al.•American Anthropologist•2009

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• Contemporary Primatology in Anthropology

  Open Access•Erin P Riley•American Anthropologist•2013

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• Seeing the Forest through the Seeds

  Karen B Strier•Current Anthropology•2009

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• Social Organization of Subhuman Primates in Their Natural Habitat

  Kinji Imanishi•Current Anthropology•1960

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• Infant killing as an evolutionary strategy

  Open Access•Robert W Sussman, James M Cheverud et al.•Evolutionary Anthropology Issues…•1994

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• Sherwood Washburn, 1911-2000

  Open Access•Jonathan Marks•Evolutionary Anthropology Issues…•2000

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