Syria, the Ba'th Regime and the Islamic Movement

Following the death of Ḣāfiz al-Asad and the rise of his son Bashshār to power in June 2000, a long chapter in the history of the complex relations between religion (Islam) and the Syrian state came to an end. Bashshār al-Asad refrained from opening his inaugural address at the People's Assembly with the traditional Bismiallah (Bism Allah al-Raḣmān al-Raḣ?m) (In the Name of the all merciful Allah) which is sine qua non in the speeches of any leader in the present day Arab world, continuing his father's practice of excluding this phrase or any other Islamic symbolism from his addresses.1 Nevertheless, one of his earliest steps after assuming power was to repeal his father's decree prohibiting the wearing of headscarves by girls in any part of the educational system in Syria. The decree had been issued by Ḣāfiz al-Asad in 1982 after he succeeded in crushing and ending the Islamic rebellion against his regime.2 Does this move on the part of Bashshār signal the turning over of a new leaf in the relationship between the Syrian Ba‘th Regime and Islamic forces, not to say the Muslim Brethren movement, in Syria? It is still too soon to say. Nevertheless, Bashshār al-Asad's step is significant, even if only symbolic, since it bore witness to the regime's readiness to heal the fissures and bind the wounds left behind by the events of the Islamic rebellion of 1976–1982, to the point of relinquishing the regime's adherence and commitment to a secular and even atheistic worldview that had been a cornerstone of its past policies, replacing this view with the robes of Islam in order to gain public legitimacy. Following the final victory of the regime over its Islamic rivals, Rif’at al-Asad, the president's brother and the number two man in his regime at the time took the occasion to send the Daughters of the Revolution (members of the Ba‘th party's youth movement) into the streets of Damascus to strip veils off the faces of women. For a long time, it was also reported from Damascus that men refrained from growing beards for fear of being accused of sympathy for the Muslim Brethren, or even a membership, a crime which according to Syrian law no. 49 from the year 1980 is punishable by death.3 From this perspective, the reports from the streets of Damascus in the spring of 1982 reminded one of the peaks of the past confrontation between the Ba‘th regime and Islamic circles in Syria. On April 25, 1967 a junior Ba‘thist officer of ‘Alawi origin named Ibrahim al-Khallas published an article in the Syrian army organ Jaysh al-Sha‘b entitled “The Means of Creating a New Arab Socialist Person,” in which he stated that “the way to fashion Arab culture and Arab society is by creating an Arab socialist who believes that God, imperialism and all other values that had controlled society in the past are no more than mummies in the Museum of History.4” The article aroused angry protest among the urban Sunni population. Strikes and anti-Ba‘th demonstrations broke out in Syria's large cities, forcing the regime to denounce the article and imprison its author and editor. These two, the Syrian public was told, were agents of the Central Damascus even stated that “the article been in the army organ part of in with and of religion to a between the and the Ba‘th regime had to from the article is no that the ‘Alawi officer the of Ba‘th and of its which power in in to the of religion in society and state and it with Arab and secular the regime had to in 1982 it that the regime had the after the victory over its in the Muslim it is that the the of relations between religion and or even between the Ba‘th Regime and Islamic circles in to it that the two for its to a new of a between religion and state and between Islam and the Ba‘th the since the Ba‘th power in on been a of by an regime to Islam out of the it had in the of the the society and the was the and his and even more his of the who power on view Islam an and even in the history and of the Arab he not it an of and a religion of to in the Arab of the Ba‘th a new or even to Islam in the of the the society and the after the in in The to Islamic in was and even in its The Regime and the its in the of to in the took over the of the and not to or even who against The of the at the of a had at all to with at in its was of of the and even from the and the in was no of the is the that the and from the of this was the urban in which the Muslim had its it is no that the the of in against the Ba‘th Ḣāfiz al-Asad's rise to power in to the regime's his to a new in relations with Islamic in the to the of in and this with the urban to the that had his to in at Sunni in a to the of and to gain for his the ‘Alawi he in the of a by the leader of the It stated that the were and were in all to circles in and gain were in and had too of in the Muslim who had from the and only a with a against his regime to it and it with an Islamic after the Muslim this The against the Ba‘th regime was in a from the Muslim traditional the after its in this a that to the between religion and this the were to the and in in and to into for the Muslim took part in to the in the and and its in Syrian of that The on the system from in of and the Muslim of the Syrian The that the Muslim for in was the of and These it from other Arab of for the came only from of the Sunni which only of the population. of in the state and who of the for among the of the even the Sunni was not in its for the in the Sunni had the were not were by the of from the of the Ba‘th from the of a and leader of the Syrian among the Sunni in the and the of the Syrian Sunni was no for the of the Muslim the Islamic and other or even the of was if it at The of for the were to among the Sunni in the cities, in the of the even this was not and The that the Ba‘th which had since to the Islamic and the public it was and from were between of the movement, which had in the been and the These were of a and demonstrations and broke out a to by the had a to the that the were the of a and in and secular from the It was also to the of with of in These in the of confrontation with the regime that in secular and even with of were to the and it to that the of the was in no to and had a against the Ba‘thist the one of in the of the of was an that against the it was the for the Islamic on the to a in the Islamic was left for the of the Muslim which had its power and over and to the and the it broke From to the Muslim a against the Ba‘th the Islamic The to an Islamic state in Syria. succeeded in to from among the Sunni that a in the and took the its in 1980 of in Syria. this was the of the and from that point the of the Regime bore The to ending in 1982 after the of the in which Syrian and of of the the of the the Muslim to an and of its its were to and of its over the it that the rebellion was not a and It more a long of of and of by Islamic all over against the its and its These a were not by any of or to Syrian public to the of the and bore witness more than to the that the Islamic and had no in against the It is that this is to the the the Syrian Regime its and the Islamic rebellion in for the The regime's of the rebellion was not only the of of it against the it the of of the Syrian population. the of the regime over the by Islamic circles in the The Islamic against the regime to the of the Muslim an in Syria. the the that for to the the to a that the an or in the this one the readiness of the to into a with the Ba‘th It bore witness to the of the of the Ba‘th Regime in since a also a of the to the it had in the and the of the and order in the and even to into it a or and and the of the Syria's Muslim the of the of Islam and of of the in which the had been in the From the was a in the regime's Islamic circles in and even to in the Muslim the regime more to of among its traditional veils for a Muslim way of in and in the and to to say that had in the streets of the state with of even named after the al-Asad and that and were for or in the streets to all It was also reported that the of were in the the of the number of all the according to Syrian from or of out of were in of was of of the of Islamic among of the among of the The Regime had not succeeded in out It also with and the of the rise in and the of were to had in Arab in in left with the that Sunni in the were on a Muslim at to the in Syrian society since the Ba‘th took and in the the Regime of the of the Muslim who had been in in since the of the Islamic at the of the were in in and the Regime its to the had in Ḣāfiz al-Asad a from the of the that the were the of the were to to in at and at the time the regime the of among the of the even the of a in the of he was the of his who had in of that since the the regime and even the that was with to for to the People's It that since the the regime been the People's Assembly a to public for and and to his On the of the to the Assembly in the Regime an to a Islamic the of Nevertheless, a among were to the People's Assembly to for to the People's the in the educational of Islamic in the large cities, is an that a new of Muslim the and to a with its and the of the Syrian regime is to and its of the of religion in the of the is a of the of that to the of Islam in the of society and the The Regime the power and of Arab in or it to of religion and state and the of that at the of the Muslim from to is in a of for his relations with the the he on the of the that was to to a for the of the point of for the Muslim The of Damascus are the number of present in is on the is a of the of the of Damascus he was on “The of Islamic also a on Syrian is also of the of and he of at published in the past were to Islamic to the regime of Ḣāfiz For a on the of it he the Muslim in of the of Islam and of a in Syria. that he the of a is the fear that a and it into a for and in The Muslim was to that it had not been the Muslim that from the it was the Regime to which The of and of is of a who had his with the Ba‘th Regime he was to this the which the in Syria. the son who the stated that from a order after the was for his and the power to the law are It is to of one the Islam is the and the power of is the after all a a is to and and a a in a for his and his and his on the of a who and not to in Arab and Islamic in the in and all over his were were were and were in order to the Arab and Islamic of this that he the of Islam to on since to it is a of and a is of an Arab and of the Islamic that Islam is the in the of and no one the to of being an Arab not the that he and the had no of the that the only on to this the of between and the Arab of that it is in the who the of of the of the Muslim is a between and the in its in the and a of adherence to with a to and the way to that of are who the of the of it is not for the of the or for the of The Arab and that are not Arab Islam that not all at in The that is to victory the is not with the Muslim the only way to the that not in an or even in a of the of the Islamic Brethren who left in the to are who was one of the of the Islamic in between 1976–1982, and among the who were left in with of the Syrian regime in order to to to in in the Damascus to a of to from the of the the the Syrian for his the death of the the were had been a leader of the in and between the and 1982 and its Following the Ba‘th left for in to the Syrian regime from and in his also the Islamic against the his and in and at in and was for the of he to Syria. at an with the Damascus in he was to to the of his The was that he with of and religion and all he to of a in his or out of and with in that not and his to to On of was to send his to the that the of the the of and the the and the in was a man who his and it is that and his in death to the the of his to the to for was in the of the and the of the It that the regime's for with the of the Muslim were too for to The regime for that the and over the Islamic of 1976–1982, and not to an in Syria. of in this that who his past is to and a in and to in and that in not to the Muslim to a to The of the and the of the movement, that the was not for the The was to of the for events of the not to to the the for a to to and to with the Ba‘th not to the Muslim it was and and in in the two new that with and the new order were to not this the Arab of is a for among the of the in the of the it it was time to over a new and no to the in it was reported on a new between the Islamic and the Syrian regime by a from had the Muslim in the in the the a of against the Ba‘th he broke off his with with and his the regime by on an of by the for the rebellion of the of to and a commitment to from any Muslim an to to of the of the and an to the events of the The by this that of the out by the had been the for on a leader who had to after the rebellion and was still the of the of by the to the Syrian in a entitled The in in which he the Islamic rebellion against the Syrian On was and by over a between his and of a his death his came into an end. for the from the Regime for for the on the that a was the for the and that behind it the of the the Syrian Regime and it and of his with the of in the his with this The rise of Bashshār al-Asad to in in June the turning over of a new leaf in relations between the Regime and the Islamic in that Bashshār refrained from opening his inaugural address with the The from his speeches and from the Bashshār over the past is one of a a secular view any also in this the by the with Bashshār in in that Bashshār to Nevertheless, one of steps after was the repeal of the issued by Ḣāfiz al-Asad in 1982 against in of wearing the in June it was reported from Damascus that the Regime had a decree in to in the the that the of of had his a leader to on its and in with in and in his to not the The Syrian reported on his in in all over Syria. was to the on the of the of in which Bashshār in in the in the of had been the point of the Islamic rebellion against his father's regime in the his year in Bashshār also and other to to Syria. in 2000, Bashshār a decree who had for more than a to for of April he that for one year issued to all to to to with this decree was to to to and in the it was a to the Muslim since it to to it that only a took of it for to to Syria. of who Syrian all over and for by the The Muslim Ḣāfiz death in its to and a new in its relations with the regime in The stated that his to the in which Bashshār had to he was to his to in the of the to move Syrian society only on that Bashshār a new and and that into the of of and that he is not for in the past in any other only for after he is in that Bashshār to of been in the past of are in and more are in and with number in the of The for the Muslim to its with Bashshār its who had been in for in Syrian the in out of which the in the past took a number of steps that its out of a to relations with Syria. in 2000, the its and its its in it was to in the of the in the of a between the to the more and the to the the rise of Bashshār to the the that he had been in and he was to the of his to The of the Muslim also to this new of and even for a time, with the rise to power of Bashshār that the of this new which of a of of and the Muslim a new for in Syria. The not the to the Regime by Syrian the in of For of and public all over in which of the regime and for in Syrian were The that the of the Muslim or its were not bore witness more than to had in Syria. was the for the with which had to On the Muslim published the of the of for The of the by the came to of its and even to a for with other in Syria. It also been at a with the Syrian regime its Ḣāfiz al-Asad had The stated that its was to a that for the of an of to the for in in this and and in view of the in the and the time a of the From to its on the in with its in and the published in the Muslim its commitment to and even of the of The state that on a the on which the of the its power and its is the of the regime to the was of Syrian that “the the by the Muslim to from the in which it the by a new which it to a in Syrian who is with the and of that not by that The is of a who a in at the time is a The Muslim believes that a and in and that the been to and that The Muslim of turning over a new leaf in its relations with the Syrian Ba‘th regime with the rise to power of Bashshār al-Asad in view of the regime's and of any readiness for in its relations with the On the a in to an for the from the from and Syria. to the was and of who were to the Muslim or at who had not to in with the of the any the to the the to the regime in the of that it was on the and that the regime was and the that it even The Muslim to over a new leaf in its relations with the Ba‘th regime in in the of Bashshār al-Asad's rise to power were by the and of readiness for any or with The adherence to a and even the was of its it the long of the and its of for the in Syria. The of the Ba‘th Regime the Syrian Muslim over the past was to no by the between the and the Islamic in the Arab Damascus a of for the of Islamic from all of the Arab to the Syrian were of the and the leader of the Islamic in leader of the movement, and Sunni Muslim from and leader of the Islamic Damascus in he a a for between Islamic in and the Ba‘th The Islamic also Damascus a the Islamic its in Damascus and its in the Syrian an the to Damascus the the Syrian Ba‘th regime was the of in the Arab to a it to present secular was one of the for its against the Syrian Islamic The of Damascus into a for Islamic of the Arab was in an of that in Syria's being the only Arab state still to the with the of and his regime the against the of that of into the Arab and Muslim it in this that the between Damascus and also Islamic circles the Arab to view the Syrian regime The between the in the Arab and the Ba‘th Regime of a to the Syrian Muslim which had in the past had and in and and even in by the also by the Islamic in it that the Syrian Islamic was For it was reported from in that at the Muslim by of the Syrian with the of for against the Ba‘th it was and one of the in the out against is the only Arab state to to to the it is for an Arab or a Muslim to it and to it and its Following the of Bashshār to the on Bashshār to over a new leaf in his relations with the Islamic in his “The of one of the of Islamic and also a a in the against in the at the time of that a new and a new leaf and 49 the death for in the Muslim the to the were of Islamic in and more and no was the of the Islamic in who on Bashshār to an to that of and that the Syrian Regime the Muslim since the movement, which been since the for its to to the Syrian to its for that and also not to in the of that to Damascus to Bashshār al-Asad on his rise to bore witness to the between the Ba‘th Regime and the in the Arab world, an which in to and at the time the Syrian Regime in its to in and the at and it that in the of the Syrian Regime is to that the from the Islamic and that the of this it not in one of the of this with the in the Arab was Syria's to and the of its in of by in Arab the in New and it that of were of Syrian origin or in for The Syrian Regime was to with the against and according to in in the and to at the of the who in the in Damascus for in Syrian also that were not to and in the in the in the The of the Islamic in in the witness to of the and even of Islam in the Arab its and in the of circles to out of the traditional of for other of the of all of the of the Islamic been the of the urban and army These and of the Sunni the Ba‘th it that the by the and of Syrian society to not with the of The the of the in the in Syrian to present a by circles to and the and order in the the of relations between religion and the state been at the of the long by circles and the Ba‘th Regime the of that since it that the Syrian Regime succeeded in the to the in it with relations from its of relations not circles to the turning into The of an and in Syrian an secular in Islamic and to the point of an the Regime a of and of which it had in the Nevertheless, which the of Islam to say of its over one the that this in the past that to the of Syrian is the Ba‘th is in the Sunni or of the the Regime succeeded in this in Syria's in the and the the a of and which had in the of the of and the the Regime by it in For the Islamic was in the among the the of in in the past to since the of from the into the are no to the Ba‘th On the of the in into in the large and aroused in a of being by the and the Regime in a to it is that the of that had been the of the Syrian Regime for is or at in the in Syria. It that a in the Arab world, the of the of the and of Islam was to Arab the that the in of the Arab to Islam than in the this it that the Syrian Regime succeeded in with the of that Syrian society is of its readiness to the of and with circles that not it and it legitimacy. was out in the spring of in the to to on army the this for long between the Ba‘th Regime and Islamic for power and to an Islamic to the of the the society and the The not the and in any that out in for against a more an since power and of the population. of is the that the of the of the Syrian the only Ba‘th Regime in the Arab world, and this Islamic even in the long Syrian over the past against the of that is for the or the in the rise of Bashshār to the and into by a Syrian “The in who been to the of the Ba‘th and a and this into the of for this the regime against in in spring was by by of the of “The is that the of the to all at the of a confrontation between the Ba‘th and Islamic circles in and one the and to from a in which to the of in in which is between the army and the Islamic circles and no one who is and Syrian “The by the to the Damascus of in was not of fear of after of the in were from the or were and in any were to the in the the fear was that the was a on the part of the Regime in order to its the of or is a that since opening the to all of the in the that Islam was was the only in the Arab that not on in in the state his on April for the time after more Syrian who from after the a in of the that out the were in the and were the were other to in that the Ba‘th Regime in Islamic circles in that a new a to and a between Islam and the in with the in in the and it the for Islamic circles to of the that in the and for the regime the to traditional Islamic of relations between religion and new the of a chapter in relations between the Islamic and the Ba‘th Regime relations between state and religion in this in the way it it is not the in the

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