Biological Weapons, Nuclear Weapons and Deterrence

The strategic use of biological weapons has presented some difficulties. Biological weapons use has been always uncertain, invisible, and delayed due to factors such as the incubation period. With the intervention of biotechnology techniques, the possible applications of biological weapons may increase and gain new strategic value. That may enhance the deterrence capability of these weapons against countries with nuclear weapons. To better understand these changes, we must look first at how biotechnology can eliminate some of the disadvantages of the strategic biological weapons use and therefore may enhance the use of biological weapons for deterrence. Notes 1. John F. Reichart, “Adversary Use of NBC Weapons: A Neglected Challenge”, Strategic Forum, Institute for National Strategic Studies, National Defense University, n°187, (December 2001) p. 1. 2. Department of Defense Dictionary of Military Terms [accessed 10 October 2007]. 3. “Unacceptable damage” was defined during the Cold War as the ability to destroy 25% of the opponent's population and 50% of the opponent's industrial capacity. 4. Gregory Koblentz, “Pathogens as Weapons: The International Security Implications of Biological Warfare,” International Security, Vol. 28, No. 3 (Winter 2003/2004), pp. 104–105. 5. Office of Technology Assessment, Proliferation of Weapons of Mass Destruction: Assessing the Risks (August 1993), p. 54. 6. Avner Cohen, “Israel and Chemical/Biological Weapons: History, Deterrence, and Arms Control”, The Nonproliferation Review (Fall-Winter, 2001), p. 40. 7. Brigadier General Russ Zajtchuk, Medical Aspects Of Chemical And Biological Warfare, Office of The Surgeon General United States Army, (1997), p. 447. 8. R. Everett Langford, Introduction to Weapons of Mass Destruction: Radiological, Chemical and Biological, (John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 2004) p. 5; Tushar Gosh, Mark Prelas, Dabir Viswanath and Sudarshan Loyalka, Science and Technology of Terrorism and Counterterrorism, (Marcel Dekker, Inc., New York, 2002) p. 56; Rebecca L. Frerichs, Reynolds M. Salerno, Kathleen M. Vogel, Natalie B. Barnett, Jennifer Gaudioso, Lauren T. Hickok, Daniel Estes and Danielle F. Jung, “Historical Precedence and Technical Requirements of Biological Weapons Use: A Threat Assessment,” Sandia National Laboratories, Albuquerque (May 2004) pp. 69–70; Eric Croddy, Chemical and Biological Warfare: a Comprehensive Survey for the Concerned Citizen (Copernicus Books, New York, 2002) pp. 17–18. 9. Avigdor Haselkorn, The Continuing Storm: Iraq, Poisonous Weapons, and Deterrence (Yale University Press, 1999) p. 22. 10. Jessica Stern, “Dreaded Risks and the Control of Biological Weapons”, International Security, Vol. 27, Number 3, (Winter 2002/2003), p. 102. 11. Harry C. Holloway, Ann E. Norwood, Carol S. Fullerton, Charles C. Engel Jr. and Robert J. Ursano, “The Threat of Biological Weapons: Prophylaxcis and Mitigation of Psychological and Social Consequences,” in Joshua Lederberg, editor, Biological Weapons: Limiting the Threat (MIT Press, United States of America, 2000) pp. 254–257. 12. Susan B. Martin, “The Role of Biological Weapons in International Politics: The Real Military Revolution,” Journal of Strategic Studies, Vol. 25, No. 1 (Frank Cass, London, March 2002) p. 72. 13. Wolfgang Bender and Kathryn Nixdorff, “Ethics of University Research, Biotechnology and Potential Military Spin-off,” Minerva, 40 (2002) pp. 24-25. 14. Michael Ainscough, “Next Generation Bioweapons: Genetic Engineering and BW,” in Colonel (Dr.) Jim A. Davis and Dr. Barry R. Schneider, editors, The Gathering Biological Warfare Storm, (Greenwood Press, May, 2004) p. 255. 15. Raymond Zilinskas, “Possible Terrorist Use of Modern Biotechnology Techniques,” Conference on Biosecurity and Bioterrorism, Istituto Diplomatico “Mario Toscano,” Rome, Italy, September, 2000, pp. 8–9 [accessed 5 January 2008]. 16. When talking about biological weapons, boomerang effect is caused when the dissemination of those weapons infects own or friendly troops. 17. Ken Alibek and with Stephen Handelman, Biohazard: The Chilling True Story of Largest Covert Biological Weapons Program in the World—Told from the Inside by the Man Who Ran It, (Arrow Books, 2000) pp. 160–163. 18. Ken Alibek and with Stephen Handelman, Op. Cit, p. 287. 19. Wolfgang Bender and Kathryn Nixdorff, “Ethics of University Research, Biotechnology and Potential Military Spin-off,” Minerva, 40 (2002) p. 22. 20. “Seasonal Flu Vaccine”, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, 21. For a better understanding of the experiment see Alexander Kelle, Kathryn Nixdorff and Malcolm Dando, Controlling Biochemical Weapons: Adapting Multilateral Arms Control for the 21st Century, (Palgrave Macmillan, 2006) pp. 80–82. 22. Infectivity is the capability of pathogen to invade, establish and multiply itself inside the host's body. 23. Raymond Zilinskas, “Possible Terrorist Use of Modern Biotechnology Techniques,” Conference on Biosecurity and Bioterrorism, Istituto Diplomatico “Mario Toscano,” Rome, Italy, September, 2000, pp. 4–5. [accessed 5 January 2008]. 24. Mark Wheelis , “Will the New Biology Lead to New Weapons?,” Arms Control Today, (July/August, 2004), p. 11. 25. Uncertainty in the nature of the biological weapon and not in their military effects. 26. Geoffrey Zubay, Agents of Bioterrorism: Pathogens and their Weaponization, (Columbia University Press, New York, 2005) pp. 73-74. 27. Anthony H. Cordesman, The Challenge of Biological Terrorism, Significant Issues Series, Vol. 27, Number 5, Center for Strategic and International Studies, (Washington DC, 2005) p. 95. 28. “Emerging Technologies Genetic Engineering and Biological Weapons,” Sunshine Project, Background Paper No. 12, November, 2003 [accessed 11 November 2007]. 29. Michael Ainscough, “Next Generation Bioweapons: Genetic Engineering and BW,” in Colonel (Dr.) Jim A. Davis and Dr. Barry R. Schneider, editors, The Gathering Biological Warfare Storm, (Greenwood Press, May, 2004) pp. 269–270. 30. Steven M. Block, “Living Nightmares: Biological Threats Enabled by Molecular Biology,” in Steve D. Drell, Abraham D. Sofaer, and George D. Wilson, editors, The New Terror: Facing the Threat of Biological and Chemical Weapons, (Hoover Institution Press, November 1999) pp. 63–64

Biological warfare · Deterrence (psychology · Deterrence theory · Nuclear weapon · Political science · Bacillus and Francisella bacterial research · Genetically Modified Organisms Research · Law · Nuclear Issues and Defense

• Pathogens as Weapons

  Gregory D Koblentz, Gregory Koblentz•International Security•2004

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• Dreaded Risks and the Control of Biological Weapons

  Jessica A Stern, Jessica Stern•International Security•2003

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• The Role of Biological Weapons in International Politics

  Martin, S B Martin•Journal of Strategic Studies•2002

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• Ethics of University Research, Biotechnology and Potential Military Spin-off

  Open Access•Kathryn Nixdorff, Wolfgang Bender•Minerva•2002

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