From Cape Breton to Vancouver Island

This historiographical essay surveys scholarship on Scottish settlement in Canada which it classifies into three broad categories: first, works that focus on the contribution of notable Scots; second, scholarship that examines the 'Scottish' character of Nova Scotia; and third, investigations of Highland enclave settlements – especially in eastern Canada. The study argues that the relatively neglected experience of Scots in British Columbia offers the most fruitful comparison with the circumstances of Scottish settlers in New Zealand. In both contexts, Scottish migration contributed to the dispossession of large numbers of indigenous peoples even as some Scots contributed significantly to trade unionism and international socialist movements that sought to bring social justice to all peoples regardless of ethnicity. Keywords: Scotshistoriographysettlementindigenous peopleslabour relations Notes [1] MacLean MacLean, Raymond A. 'McLeod, Norman.' Dictionary of Canadian Biography Online. [Google Scholar], 'McLeod, Norman'; Molloy Molloy, Maureen. 'McLeod, Norman.' Dictionary of New Zealand Biography Online, http://www.teara.govt.nz/en/biographies/1m39/1 (accessed March 9, 2011) [Google Scholar], 'McLeod, Norman'; Robinson Robinson, Neil. 1997. To the Ends of the Earth: Norman McLeod and the Highlanders' Migration to Nova Scotia and New Zealand, Auckland: Harper Collins. [Google Scholar], To the Ends of the Earth; McPherson McPherson, Flora. 1962. Watchman Against the World: The Story of Norman McLeod and His People, London: Robert Hale. [Google Scholar], Watchman Against the World; Richards Richards, Eric. 'The Last of the Clan and Other Highland Emigrants.' In Brooking and Jennie Coleman The Heather and the Fern, 33–47. [Google Scholar], 'The Last of the Clan', 45; and Brooking Brooking, Tom. 2003. "Sharing Out the Haggis: The Special Scottish Contribution to New Zealand History". In The Heather and the Fern: Scottish Migration and New Zealand Settlement, Edited by: Brooking, Tom and Coleman, Jennie. 44–65. Dunedin: University of Otago Press. [Google Scholar], 'Sharing Out the Haggis', 50 [2] MacIntyre MacIntyre, April D. 'House and Home: Scottish Domestic Architecture in Nova Scotia and the Rev. Norman McLeod Homestead.' MA diss., Memorial University, 2005. [Google Scholar], 'House and Home'. [3] Bueltmann and others, Ties of Bluid, Kin and Countrie. [4] Vance Vance, Michael E. 'A Brief History of Organized Scottishness in Canada.' In Ray Transatlantic Scots, 96–119. [Google Scholar], 'A Brief History'; Rattray, the son of a Scottish baker, was born in London, England and never visited Scotland. See Stanford Reid Stanford Reid, William. 'Rattray, William Jordan.' Dictionary of Canadian Biography Online. [Google Scholar], 'Rattray, William Jordan'. [5] Donald Smith was both the subject and promoter of such celebrations. See Vance, 'A Brief History', 100–1; and Reford Reford, Alexander. 'Smith, Donald Alexander.' Dictionary of Canadian Biography Online. [Google Scholar], 'Smith, Donald Alexander'. [6] Stanley Stanley, George M. 'The Scottish Military Tradition.' In In Stanford Reid The Scottish Tradition in Canada, 137–60. [Google Scholar], 'The Scottish Military Tradition'; Masters Masters, D. C. 'The Scottish Tradition in Higher Education.' In Stanford Reid The Scottish Tradition in Canada, 248–72. [Google Scholar], 'The Scottish Tradition in Higher Education'; Mitchell Mitchell, Elaine Allan. 'The Scot in the Fur Trade.' In Stanford Reid The Scottish Tradition in Canada, 27–48. [Google Scholar], 'The Scot in the Fur Trade'; MacMillan MacMillan, David S. 1976. "The Scot as Businessman". In The Scottish Tradition in Canada, Edited by: Reid, W. Stanford. 179–202. Toronto: McLelland and Stewart. [Google Scholar], 'The Scot as Businessman'; Klepak Klepak, H. P. 'A Man's a Man because of That: The Scots in the Canadian Military Experience.' In Rider and McNabb A Kingdom of the Mind, 40–59. [Google Scholar], 'A Man's a Man because of That'; MacLeod MacLeod, Roderick. '"In the Hallowed Name of Religion": Scots and Public Education in Nineteenth-Century Montreal.' In Rider and McNabb A Kingdom of the Mind, 227–41. [Google Scholar], '"In the Hallowed Name of Religion"'; Bumsted Bumsted, J. M. 2006. "The Curious Tale of the Scots in the Fur Trade: An Historiographical Account". In A Kingdom of the Mind: How the Scots Helped Make Canada, Edited by: Rider, Peter and McNabb, Heather. 60–75. Montreal: McGill-Queen's University Press. [Google Scholar], 'The Curious Tale of the Scots in the Fur Trade'; and McCalla McCalla, Douglas. 'Sojourners in the Snow? The Scots in Business in Nineteenth-Century Canada.' In Rider and McNabb A Kingdom of the Mind, 76–96. [Google Scholar], 'Sojourners in the Snow?'. [7] For example, Donald A. Smith, who was born in Forres, was inspired to join the fur trade by the example of his uncle John Stuart. Less generally acknowledged, however, is the role of indigenous networks in assisting the careers of many early fur traders. Smith's wife Isabella Hardistry, who was of mixed Scottish and native ancestry, was the daughter of the Hudson Bay Company's chief trader in Rigolet, Labrador, where Smith began his career, and she moved in with him when he took over the trading post. As a consequence of her native ancestry, Isabella was at times the object of ridicule when the couple left Labrador, ultimately for a life of wealth and privilege in Montreal and London, but Smith remained loyal to her and went to great lengths to assure that their marriage was accepted as legitimate. Other traders were less scrupulous. See Reford, 'Smith, Donald Alexander'. [8] Evans Evans, A. Margaret MacLaren. 1976. "The Scot as Politician". In The Scottish Tradition in Canada, Edited by: Reid, W. Stanford. 273–301. Toronto: McClelland and Stewart. [Google Scholar], 'The Scot as Politician'; Cowan Cowan, E. J. 'The Scots' Imagining of Canada.' In Rider and McNabb A Kingdom of the Mind, 3–21. [Google Scholar], 'The Scots' Imagining of Canada'; and Oberholtzer Oberholtzer, Cath. 'Thistles in the North: The Direct and Indirect Scottish Influence on James Bay Cree Material Culture.' In Rider and McNabb A Kingdom of the Mind, 99–121. [Google Scholar], 'Thistles in the North'. Especially welcome is the essay on the composition of the Montreal Scottish community in the mid-nineteenth century, which extends the discussion beyond the wealthy commercial elite to demonstrate that the vast majority of Scots belonged to the class of skilled artisans who were engaged in actually building what was at the time Canada's largest city. See McNabb McNabb, Heather. 'Butcher, Baker, Cabinet Maker? A View of Montreal's Scottish Immigrant Community from 1835 to 1865.' In Rider and McNabb A Kingdom of the Mind, 242–59. [Google Scholar], 'Butcher, Baker, Cabinet Maker?'. [9] Rattray Rattray, William Jordan. 1880–1884. The Scot in British North America, 4 vols, Toronto: Mclear. [Google Scholar] even included a chapter on notable Scots in British Columbia in his final and fourth volume of The Scot in British North America, 1101–21. [10] Bumsted Bumsted, J. M. 1982. The Scots in Canada, Ottawa: Canadian Historical Association. [Google Scholar], The Scots in Canada. [11] Harper Harper, Marjory. 1998. Emigration from Scotland between the Wars: Opportunity or Exile?, Manchester: Manchester University Press. [Google Scholar], Emigration from Scotland between the Wars; and Bumsted, The Scots in Canada, 10, 17. [12] Objections to the creation of the Nova Scotia tartan were voiced at the time by some Scottish descendants who complained that anyone in the province could wear the tartan whether they were Scottish or not. McKay McKay, Ian. 1994. The Quest of the Folk: Antimodernism and Cultural Selection in Twentieth-Century Nova Scotia, Montreal: McGill-Queen's University Press. [Google Scholar], The Quest of the Folk, 206–12; McKay McKay, Ian. Spring 1992. Tartanism Triumphant: The Construction of Scottishness in Nova Scotia, 1933– 1954. Acadiensis, 21(2): 5–47. [Crossref], [Web of Science ®] , [Google Scholar], 'Tartanism Triumphant'; and McKay and Bates McKay, Ian and Bates, Robin. 2010. In the Province of History: The Making of the Public Past in Twentieth Century Nova Scotia, Montreal: McGill-Queen's University Press. [Google Scholar], In the Province of History. [13] Harper and Vance Harper, Marjory and Vance, Michael E., eds. 1999. Myth, Migration and the Making of Memory: Scotia and Nova Scotia c. 1700–1990, Halifax & Edinburgh: Fernwood & John Donald. [Google Scholar], Myth, Migration and the Making of Memory,14–48. [14] MacDonald MacDonald, Gordon. 1928. The Highlanders of Waipu or Echoes of 1745: A Scottish Odyssey, Dunedin: Coulls Somerville Wilkie. [Google Scholar], The Highlanders of Waipu or Echoes of 1745. [15] Vance Vance, Michael E. 'Powerful Pathos: the Triumph of Scottishness in Nova Scotia.' In Ray Transatlantic Scots, 156–79. [Google Scholar], 'Powerful Pathos'; and Dembling Dembling, Jonathan. 2005. "You Play It as You Would Sing It: Cape Breton, Scottishness, and the Means of Cultural Production". In Transatlantic Scots, Edited by: Ray, Celeste. 180–97. Tuscaloosa: University of Alabama Press. [Google Scholar], 'You Play It as You Would Sing It'. [16] Hornsby drew his sample from Donald Whyte's Dictionary of Scottish Emigrants to Canada before Confederation (Toronto: Ontario Genealogical Society, 1986). See Hornsby Hornsby, Stephen J. 1992. Patterns of Scottish Emigration to Canada, 1750–1870. Journal of Historical Geography, 18(4): 387–416. [Crossref] , [Google Scholar], 'Patterns of Scottish Emigration'. [17] Little Little, J. I. 1991. Crofters and Habitants: Settler Society, Economy and Culture in a Quebec Township, Montreal: McGill-Queen's University Press. [Google Scholar], Crofters and Habitants; Little Little, J. I. 1999. Agricultural Improvement and Highland Clearance: The Isle of Arran, 1766–1829. Scottish Economic and Social History, 19: 132–54. Part 2[Crossref], [PubMed] , [Google Scholar], 'Agricultural Improvement and Highland Clearance'; and Little Little, J. I. 2000. From the Isle of Arran to Inverness Township: A Case Study of Highland Emigration and North American Settlement, 1829–34. Scottish Economic and Social History, 20: 9–19. Part 1[Crossref] , [Google Scholar], 'From the Isle of Arran to Inverness Township'; and McLean McLean, Marianne. 1991. The People of Glengarry: Highlanders in Transition, 1745–1820, Montreal: McGill-Queen's University Press. [Google Scholar], The People of Glengarry. [18] The Red River settlement was located in territory controlled by the Hudson's Bay Company rather than an appointed colonial governor and legislative assembly. For the history of the Highland settlement of the colony, see Bumsted Bumsted, J. M. 1982. The Peoples' Clearance, Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press. [Google Scholar], The Peoples' Clearance; and Bumsted Bumsted, J. M. 2003. Trials and Tribulations: The Red River Settlement and the Emergence of Manitoba 1811–1870, Winnipeg: Great Plains Publications. [Google Scholar], Trials and Tribulations. An early nineteenth-century account is Alexander Ross's Ross, Alexander. 1856. The Red River Settlement: Its Rise Progress and Present State, London: Smith, Elder. [Google Scholar] The Red River Settlement. [19] Charles Dunn's Dunn, Charles W. 1953. Highland Settler: A Portrait of the Scottish Gael in Cape Breton and Eastern Nova Scotia, Toronto: University of Toronto Press. [Google Scholar] Highland Settler continues to be reprinted by Breton Books for the Nova Scotia tourist market. [20] Margaret Bennett also studied the Cape Breton Gaelic speakers who settled in western Newfoundland in The Last Stronghold Bennett, Margaret. 1989. The Last Stronghold: The Scottish Gaelic Traditions of Newfoundland, St. John's, Newfoundland: Breakwater Books. [Google Scholar]. Oatmeal and the Catechism Bennett, Margaret. 1998. Oatmeal and the Catechism: Scottish Gaelic Settlers in Quebec, Montreal: McGill-Queens University Press. [Google Scholar] is her study of the Highland enclave in the Eastern Townships. [21] The studies undertaken by Norton Norton, Wayne. 1994. 'Help Us to a Better Land': Crofter Colonies in the Prairie West, Regina, Saskatchewan: Canadian Plains Research Center. [Google Scholar], 'Help Us to a Better Land'; and Harper Harper, Marjory. 1994. Crofter Colonists in Canada: An Experiment in Empire Settlement. Northern Scotland, 14: 69–111. [Crossref] , [Google Scholar], 'Crofter Colonists in Canada', which examine the crofter colonies established on the Canadian prairies in the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, are further examples of the migration and settlement approach. [22] See Little, Crofters and Habitants; Little Little, J. I. 1996. The Bard in a Community in Transition and Decline: Oscar Dhu and the Hebridean Scots of the Upper St. Francis District, Quebec. Canadian Papers in Rural History, 10: 45–79. [Google Scholar], 'The Bard in a Community'; Little Little, J. I. 1995. Popular Voices in Print: the Local Newspaper Correspondents of an Extended Scots-Canadian Community, 1894. Journal of Canadian Studies, 30(3): 34–55. [Crossref] , [Google Scholar], 'Popular Voices in Print'; and Little Little, J. I. 1994. Popular Resistance to Legal Authority in the Upper St. Francis District of Quebec: The Megantic Outlaw Affair of 1888–89. Labour/La Travial, 33: 97–124. [Google Scholar], 'Popular Resistance to Legal Authority'. For the British American Land Company and the role of Alexander Tilloch Galt, see Little Little, J. I. 1989. Nationalism, Capitalism, and Colonization in Nineteenth-Century Quebec: The Upper St. Francis District, Montreal: McGill-Queen's University Press. [Google Scholar], Nationalism, Capitalism, and Colonization, 36–63; and Kesteman Kesteman, Jean-Pierre. 'Galt, Sir Alexander Tilloch.' Dictionary of Canadian Biography Online, http://www.biographi.ca (accessed March 9, 2011). [Google Scholar], 'Galt, Sir Alexander Tilloch'. A good deal has been written about John Galt and his earlier work for another commercial concern, the Canada Company, which established settlers in western Ontario but, surprisingly, there have not been any modern studies of the Highland and Lowland settlers of these communities. The existing literature is summarised in Lucille Campey's Campey, Lucille H. 2005. The Scottish Pioneers of Upper Canada: Glengarry and Beyond, Toronto: Natural Heritage Books. [Google Scholar] The Scottish Pioneers of Upper Canada, one of several books she has written in order to provide regional overviews of Scottish settlement in Canada for the general reader. [23] Harper Harper, Marjory. 1988. Emigration from North-East Scotland, 2 vols, Aberdeen: Aberdeen University Press. [Google Scholar], Emigration from North-East Scotland, 1: 215–24; Cowan Cowan, E. J. 1992. "From the Southern Uplands to Southern Ontario: Nineteenth-Century Emigration from the Scottish Borders". In Scottish Emigration and Scottish Society, Edited by: Devine, T. M. 61–83. Edinburgh: John Donald. [Google Scholar], 'From the Southern Uplands to Southern Ontario'; and Vance Vance, Michael E. 2001. "Advancement, Moral Worth and Freedom": The Meaning of Independence for Early Nineteenth-Century Lowland Emigrants to Upper Canada". In Nation and Province in the First British Empire: Scotland and the Americas, 1600–1800, Edited by: Landsman, Ned C. 151–80. Lewisburg: Bucknell University Press. [Google Scholar], 'Advancement, Moral Worth and Freedom'. [24] For emigrant Highlanders' destination alternatives see Richards, 'The Last of the Clan'; and Richards, 'Leaving the Highlands'. Among many articles that Marjory Harper has published on Scottish emigrants to Canada are 'A Gullible Pioneer? Harper, Marjory. 1986. A Gullible Pioneer? Lord Aberdeen and the Development of Fruit Farming in the Okanagan Valley, 1890–1921. British Journal of Canadian Studies, 1(2): 256–81. [Google Scholar]'; and 'Cossar's Colonists Harper, Marjory. 1998. Cossar's Colonists: Juvenile Migration to New Brunswick in the 1920s. Acadiensis, 28(1): 47–65. [Web of Science ®] , [Google Scholar]'. For her discussion of domestic servants, see Harper, Emigration from North-East Scotland, 2: 231–85; and Emigration from Scotland between the Wars, 146–51. No author to date, however, has produced a general study of Scottish women's experiences in Canada. [25] Hornsby Hornsby, Stephen J. 1992. Nineteenth-Century Cape Breton: A Historical Geography, Montreal: McGill-Queen's University Press. [Google Scholar], Nineteenth-Century Cape Breton. Historical geographer Alan Brunger has also mapped the chronology of Scottish settlement in southern Ontario and demonstrated how that compares with Irish settlement. See Brunger Brunger, Alan G. 1990. The Distribution of the Scots and the Irish in Upper Canada, 1851–1871. The Canadian Geographer, 34(3): 250–8. [Crossref], [Web of Science ®] , [Google Scholar], 'The Distribution of the Scots and the Irish'. [26] Clayton Clayton, Daniel. 2000. Islands of Truth: The Imperial Fashioning of Vancouver Island, Vancouver: University of British Columbia Press. [Google Scholar], Islands of Truth; and Harris Harris, R. Cole. 2002. Making Native Space: Colonialism, Resistance and Reserves in British Columbia, Vancouver: University of British Columbia Press. [Google Scholar], Making Native Space. [27] Crawley's report continued 'From Whykokomagh also... the Indians have complained to me not only of the encroachment of the Scotch settlers, and of their depredations on the timber in that reserve, but also that their hay and crops are destroyed by the same trespassers, who throw down fences to admit their own cattle; and the Indians are afraid to resist'. According to Crawley, the Courts offered no protection for Indian property because no jury would find against the squatters and as a solution he advocated the right to vote be given to 'the heads of Indian families'. Instead, after two decades of native protest, the legislature confirmed possession to long-term squatters on native land. See H.W. Crawley to Joseph Howe, February 1, 1849, Journal and Proceedings of the House of Assembly (Halifax, Nova Scotia: Richard Nugent, 1849), 355–6; Bittermann Bittermann, Rusty. 1988. The Hierarchy of the Soil: Land and Labour in a Nineteenth Century Cape Breton Community. Acadiensis, 18(1): 33–55. [Web of Science ®] , [Google Scholar], 'The Hierarchy of the Soil'; and Calloway Calloway, Colin G. 2008. White People, Indians, and Highlanders: Tribal Peoples and Colonial Encounters in Scotland and America, Oxford: Oxford University Press. [Crossref] , [Google Scholar], White People, Indians, and Highlanders, 208–12. [28] Barman Barman, Jean. 2007. The West Beyond the West: A History of British Columbia, Toronto: University of Toronto Press. [Google Scholar], The West Beyond the West; and Belich Belich, James. 2001. Making Peoples: A History of New Zealanders, from Polynesian Settlement to the end of the Nineteenth Century, Honolulu: University of Hawai'i Press. [Google Scholar], Making Peoples. [29] Despite the prominent position of her husband, Amelia Douglas also suffered from this discrimination. See Van Kirk Van Kirk, Sylvia. 1999. "Colonised Lives: The Native Wives and Daughters of Five Founding Families of Victoria". In Pacific Empires: Essays in Honour of Glyndwr Williams, Edited by: Frost, Alan and Samson, Jane. 215–33. Vancouver: University of British Columbia Press. [Google Scholar], 'Colonised Lives'; Van Kirk Van Kirk, Sylvia. 1980. Many Tender Ties: Women in Fur Trade Society in Western Canada, Winnipeg: Watson & Dyer. [Google Scholar], Tender Ties; Brown Brown, Jennifer. 1980. Strangers in Blood: Fur Trade Company Families in Indian Country, Vancouver: University of British Columbia Press. [Google Scholar], Strangers in Blood; and Calloway, White People, Indians, and Highlanders, 147–74. [30] Harris, Making Native Space, 11–16. [31] Harris, Making Native Space; and Harring Harring, Sidney L. 1998. White Man's Law: Native People in Nineteenth-Century Canadian Jurisprudence, Toronto: University of Toronto Press. [Google Scholar], White Man's Law. [32] Clayton, Islands of Truth; and Barman, The West Beyond the West, 380–2. [33] Ralston Ralston, H. Keith. 'Ewan, Alexander.' Dictionary of Canadian Biography Online. [Google Scholar], 'Ewan, Alexander'. [34] McDonald McDonald, Robert A. J. 2001/2002. "He Thought He Was the Boss of Everything": Masculinity and Power in a Vancouver Family. BC Studies, 132: 5–30. [Google Scholar], '"He Thought He Was the Boss of Everything"'. [35] The cosmopolitan nature of the workforce was typical of BC resource industries. See Harris Harris, R. Cole. 1997. The Resettlement of British Columbia: Essays on Colonialism and Geographical Change, Vancouver: University of British Columbia Press. [Google Scholar], The Resettlement of British Columbia; Perry Perry, Adele. 2001. On the Edge of Empire: Gender, Race, and the Making of British Columbia, 1849–1871, Toronto: University of Toronto Press. [Crossref] , [Google Scholar], On the Edge of Empire; and Belshaw Belshaw, John Douglas. 2002. Colonization and Community: The Vancouver Island Coalfield and the Making of British Columbia, Montreal: McGill-Queen's University Press. [Google Scholar], Colonization and Community. Analysis of the aggregate 1931 census data suggests that in the early 1930s 33.1% of Pacific coast Canadian fishers were of First Nations ethnic origin, 19.5% were of Japanese origin and 20.7% were of British origin, of which a little more than half were born in the British Isles. I have estimated that approximately 480 individuals of a combined total of more than 7,500 coast fishers were or of Scottish See Vance Vance, Michael E. 2008. a Scots in British BC Studies, [Google Scholar], a For the see Vance, a The for the was by a in the 1920s. See British Columbia Zealand British In the same BC a of in New Zealand with Canadian such as the and as as with British and Scottish such as the and Vance, a in their were a of John their at in of the most of these Scots was Robert who from the of Hudson Bay Company to a Vancouver Island is to Tom for Scots New Zealand See Brooking Brooking, Tom. and The Scots in New In The Scots Edited by: R. A. London: [Google Scholar], and and Belshaw, Colonization and Community. The of Canada: BC 1, Island 1, Alexander from New Zealand earlier in See the of Canada: BC 1, Island William would to the on Island to that that he have that most before he William was born in New Zealand in See The March to George George North University of British Columbia Special and The 1, Vance, a one Canada it is not to find Scots and several Scots moved from such to prominent in the Canadian socialist and See Vance, a and 1999. A Toronto: & [Google Scholar]

Archaeology · Art · Cape · Ethnic group · Ethnology · Geography · Historiography · Human settlement · Indigenous · Nova scotia · Political science · Scholarship · Scots · Settlement (finance · Sociology · Anthropology · Australian History and Society · Gender Studies · Historical Studies of British Isles · History · Law · Scottish History and National Identity

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• Scots, capitalism, and the colonial countryside

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• White People, Indians, and Highlanders

  Colin G Calloway•White people, Indians, and…•2008

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• Colonization and Community

  John Douglas Belshaw•Colonization and Community•2002

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• Nationalism, Capitalism, and Colonization in Nineteenth-Century Quebec

  J Little, J I Little•Nationalism, Capitalism, and…•1989

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• Making Native Space

  Cole Harris, Eric Leinberger•Making Native Space•2007

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• The People's Clearance

  J M Bumsted•People's Clearance•1982

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• From the Isle of Arran to Inverness Township

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• J. B. McLachlan

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  Open Access•Marjory Harper•Northern Scotland•1994

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