Teaching and Learning Guide for

This guide accompanies the following article: Michael M. Wehrman, ‘Examining Race and Sex Inequality in Recidivism’, Sociology Compass 5/3 (2011): 179–189, 10.1111/j.1751‐9020.2011.00362.x. Author’s introduction Scholars and policymakers are well aware of the high likelihood of failure for recent releases from prison. High recidivism rates are expected, though not necessarily welcome. This article highlights some of the issues that go beyond noting that recidivism rates are simply high: they are higher for some groups than others. Identifying some of the unique mechanisms and processes that lead to race and gender disparity in recidivism rates will help inform policymakers as they seek to write effective policies aimed at a growing population of prisoners facing re‐entry. Author recommends Broidy, Lisa and Robert Agnew. 1997. ‘Gender and Crime: A General Strain Theory Perspective.’ Journal of Research in Crime and Delinquency 34: 275–306. This article offers up a theoretical explanation specifically aimed at how women are influenced by General Strain Theory differently than men. In short, men are prone to respond to sources of strain with aggression and external attribution of blame; women, with depression and internal attribution of blame. As a result, they would be less likely to seek out external sources as a means of criminal coping. Of the many gender‐specific theories, this has a unique application to those re‐entering society, as the disruption they experience during transitioning out of prison is a significant source of strain. Clear, Todd R. 2009. Imprisoning Communities: How Mass Incarceration Makes Disadvantaged Neighborhoods Worse. Oxford University Press. This book looks at the impact of mass incarceration on disadvantaged communities. As most prisoners come from poor neighborhoods, they return to (often the same) poor neighborhoods upon release. Such communities are characterized by strained resources and weak job opportunities for all its citizens – something that only exacerbates the high likelihood of recidivism for those leaving prison. An additional focus here is the concentration of African‐Americans in impoverished communities, something that contributes to their markedly high recidivism rates. Pager, Devah. 2009. Marked: Race, Crime and Finding Work in an Era of Mass Incarceration . University of Chicago Press. Pager focuses on comparing racial discrimination and felon exclusion in hiring practices in her highly regarded research. While racial discrimination in hiring is illegal and socially taboo, in most states failing to hire a felon due to their criminal history is not only legal, but considered a sensible business practice (at least in the eyes of the business owner). Pager finds that racial discrimination is greater than felon discrimination. However, she finds that African‐Americans with a criminal background suffer from a ‘two strikes, you’re out’ pattern, as they experience the fewest chances of all at being hired. The policy implications for recidivism are clear, as being continually denied employment will only enhance the likelihood of reoffending (and, in this case, racial disparity in reoffending). Reisig, Michael D., Kristy Holtfreter and Merry Morash. 2006. ‘Assessing Recidivism Risk Across Female Pathways to Crime.’ Justice Quarterly 23: 384–405. Female prisoners have lower recidivism rates compared with males. This article tests the predictive validity of a widely used risk assessment instrument, the Level of Service Inventory‐Revised (LSI‐R). By comparing groups of women based on their motivation (economic motivation versus gendered pathways to crime), the authors find that the LSI‐R was able to reliably predict recidivism for women whose offenses were economically motivated. For women whose motivations were gendered (e.g. drug‐connected or harmed/harming women), the LSI‐R’s predictions were significantly less successful. This reinforces that women’s pathways to crime, and also to reoffending, are influenced by different factors compared with men. Western, Bruce. 2007. Punishment and Inequality in America . Russell Sage Foundation Publications. Westerns’ work here summarizes the political causes of the mass incarceration period in American history. The impact of punitive policies of the past several decades has disproportionately targeted poor and minority populations. Similar to Clear’s book, Western discusses the impact of mass incarceration on poor minority communities, paying attention to the high likelihood of recidivism for those who reside in and return to such neighborhoods. In addition, he notes the impact of mass incarceration on masking wage disparity between non‐incarcerated Whites and African‐Americans. Online materials National Reentry Resource Center: http://www.nationalreentryresourcecenter.org/ Established in 2008 with the passage of the Second Chance Act, the National Reentry Resource Center is a group of the Council of State Governments (CSG). The center recognizes the need to identify policies that work to assist the ever growing number of people leaving prison in transitioning to life outside of prison walls. They provide education, training, and assistance to states that seek to implement re‐entry programs and policies in order to curb recidivism. Prison Policy Initiative: http://www.prisonpolicy.org/ This organization is devoted to studying and presenting research findings on the impact of mass incarceration in individuals, communities, and the nation at large. Their research has helped show, in one example, how mandatory sentencing policies in Massachusetts neglected to protect children from exposure to crime, and additionally perpetuated racial disparity in prison populations (as the policy disproportionately impacted densely populated largely African‐American communities). This American Life Episode 430: Very Tough Love: http://www.thisamericanlife.org/radio‐archives/episode/430/very‐tough‐love This radio program (approx. 60 min) tells of a drug court in Glynn County, GA. The judge in this court is well known for shouting down defendants, offering the harshest sentences possible, and in some cases imposing indefinite sentences. Such programs not only run contrary to the guiding philosophy of drug courts, but also impact a number of women as noted in the story – one of whom spent over 10 years behind bars and can not find work (due to felon status), all because she was found to have had two off‐prescription pills in her purse

Attribution · Blame · Criminology · General strain theory · Juvenile delinquency · Population · Prison · Recidivism · Sociology · Crime Patterns and Interventions · Demography · Psychology · Social Psychology · Wildlife Conservation and Criminology Analyses