Spiritual Authority versus Secular Authority

Click to increase image sizeClick to decrease image size Notes 1 CitationColonel Charles Churchill (1853) Mount Lebanon: A Ten Years' Residence from 1842 to 1852, Vol. 1 (London: Saunders and Otley, republished in 1994 by Garnet Publishing, Reading, and printed in Lebanon), pp. 58–59. 2 This literature has focused mainly on political Islam, primarily the Islamization of public space, the origins of Islamist movements, the reasons behind their appeal, their ideologies, views of the West, strategies for gaining influence, and relations with each other and with the state. 3 See CitationSami E. Baroudi, Divergent Perspectives among Lebanon's Maronites during the 1958 Crisis, Critique: Critical Middle Eastern Studies, 15(1), pp. 5–28. 4 The Maronite church returned to political activism following the election of Patriarch Sfeir in 1986. Not only did Sfeir exhibit greater political activism (and acumen) than his predecessor, but his election took place against the backdrop of mounting divisions among the Christians and an overall deterioration in their military situation. This combination propelled the church to the center of the political stage. 5 As in every large organization, one cannot deny the presence of dissenting voices within the Maronite church. Nevertheless, these voices are too faint to enable one to speak of any resistance from the Maronite clergy to the positions adopted by the Patriarch and the Council of Maronite Bishops. In his important work on church–state relations in Latin America, Anthony Gill notes that: 'Despite the many changes in Catholicism since Vatican II, the Catholic Church remains a very hierarchical organization and power still flows from the top down.' See Anthony Gill (Citation1989) Rendering Unto Caesar: The Catholic Church and the State in Latin America (Chicago: The University of Chicago Press), p. 5. His observation applies well to the Maronite church. 6 Although in union with Rome, and hence subject to the authority of the Pope, there has been little intervention from the Vatican in the affairs of the Maronite church, at least in the postwar era. 7 In this article, the term Bkirki is used to connote the office of the Maronite Patriarch, just as the term White House signifies the office of the US President. 8 There is considerable controversy over the number of adherents and relative weight of any of the sects of Lebanon. We rely here on the figures used by Carole Dagher (Citation2000) Bring Down the Walls: Lebanon's Post-War Challenge (New York: St. Martin's Press), pp. 70–71. Using a range of figures, she estimates that the Christians make up 40 percent of Lebanon's population and the Maronites represent 65 percent of the Christian population; which means that the Maronites represent around 26 percent of the total population. In any other Middle Eastern country the Christians (of all denominations) represent a far lower percentage of the population. Dagher also provides figures on the numbers of the different Christian communities in the Middle East, p. 70. 12 Dagher, Bring Down the Walls, p.138. 9 See, in particular, Kamal Salibi (Citation1965) The Modern History of Lebanon (Delmar, N.Y.: Caravan Books), esp. pp. 12–13, 153–154; and Kamal Salibi (Citation1988) A House of Many Mansions: The History of Lebanon Revisited (Berkley and Los Angeles: University of California Press), esp. pp. 25–27, 33–35. 10 In the spring and summer of 1958, Lebanon witnessed an armed insurrection against President Camille Chamoun. The rebellion was led by Muslim and leftist figures who were disgruntled by Chamoun's foreign and domestic policies. The insurgents had the backing of the then Egyptian President Jamal Abdel Nasser, who at that time was the President of the United Arab Republic that comprised Egypt and Syria (1958–1961). During the events of 1958, the Maronite Patriarch, Boulos Meouchi, sided with the opponents of Chamoun. His anti-Chamoun stance, while not popular in most Maronite circles, reduced the sectarian dimension of the crisis. See further Baroudi, Divergent Perspectives among Lebanon's Maronites, pp. 5–28; Irene Gendzier (Citation1999) Notes from the Minefield: United States Intervention in Lebanon and the Middle East, 1945–1958 (Boulder, Colorado: Westview Press), pp. 230–363; Fawaz Traboulsi (Citation1993), Identités et Solidarités Croisés dans les Conflicts du Liban Contemporain, 2 vols., PhD Thesis, University of Paris VIII, pp. 376–383; and James Jankowski (Citation2002), Nasser's Egypt, Arab Nationalism, and the United Arab Republic (London: Lynne Rienner), pp. 137–138, 145–151. 11 The principal Maronite leaders at the time (Pierre Gemayel, Chamoun, and Father Charbel Kassis, Supervisor of the Permanent Congress of Lebanese Monks) founded the Lebanese Front in 1976. It received a severe blow when former President Franjieh abandoned it in 1978, and was marginalized further by Bashir Gemayel's rise to power in the Christian heartland. By the early 1980s, the Lebanese Front fell under the dominance of the Lebanese Forces. 13 For the coverage of Sfeir's election see Al-Nahar (Beirut), April 20, 1986, pp. 1, 8. 14 For coverage of Israel's tacit alliance with Bashir Gemayel and his Lebanese Forces see inter alia, Yair Evron (Citation1987) War and Intervention in Lebanon: The Israeli-Syrian Deterrence Dialogue (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press), esp. pp. 105–159; Avi Shlaim (Citation2000) The Iron Wall: Israel and the Arab World (London: Penguin Books), pp. 395–399, 407–418; Joseph Abou-Khalil (Citation2002) Pierre Jemayel: Qisat Rajul wa Watan [Pierre Gemayel: The story of a Man and an Nation] (Beirut: Sharikat Fan lil-Tiba'ah,), esp. pp. 218–245; and Elizabeth Picard (Citation2002) Lebanon: A Shatterd Country: Myths and Realities of the Wars in Lebanon, revised edn, Franklin Philip (Tran.) (New York: Holmes & Meier,), esp. pp. 125–126. 15 Meir Zamir also traces the beginning of the Maronites' downfall to Bashir Gemayel's assassination; see Meir Zamir (Citation1999) From hegemony to marginalism: the Maronites of Lebanon, in: Ofra Bengio & Gabriel Ben-Dor (eds), Minorities and the State in the Arab World (London: Lynne Rienner Publishers), pp. 111–128. For a detailed account of military developments in Lebanon between the summer of 1982 and 1986, see Tabitha Petran (Citation1987) The Struggle for Lebanon (New York: Monthly Review Press), pp. 275–383. 16 The 'Mountain war' has been covered extensively in most accounts of the Lebanese War; see, for example, Theodor Hanf (Citation1993) Coexistence in Wartime Lebanon: Decline of a State and Rise of a Nation (:Center for Lebanese Studies & I.B. Tauris), pp. 275–279, 285–293; and Tabitha Petran (1987) The Struggle over Lebanon (New York: Monthly Review Press). 17 According to Elizabeth Picard, 300,000 Christians fled from Chouf and Aley in 1983 and another 70,000 abandoned their villages to the east of Sidon in 1985; Picard, Lebanon, p. 168. 18 According to Elizabeth Picard, 300,000 Christians fled from Chouf and Aley in 1983 and another 70,000 abandoned their villages to the east of Sidon in 1985; Picard, Lebanon, pp. 127–128. 19 Al-Nahar, April 9, 1986, pp. 1, 5. 20 The agreement dubbed the Tripartite Agreement was signed in December 1985 in Damascus between Hobeika, Walid Jounblat and Nabih Berri, head of the Shiite Amal movement. It sought an end to the civil war via constitutional reforms aimed at reducing the powers of the Lebanese president, abolishing political confessionalism, electing members of parliament on the basis of parity between Christians and Muslims, and strengthening Lebanon's ties to the Arab region, particularly Syria. For a brief description of the domestic reforms called for by the Agreement, see CitationGhassan Salame, The Lebanese crisis: interpretations and solutions, in: Nadim Shehadi & and Bridget Harney, Politics and the Economy in Lebanon (Oxford: Center for Lebanese Studies, 1989), pp. 51-67. The most controversial aspects of the Tripartite Agreement had to do with solidifying Lebanon's ties to Syria, effectively putting Lebanon in Syria's orbit. For a critical overview of the Agreement see Hanf, Coexistence, pp. 307–309; and Albert Mansour (Citation1994) Mawt Jumhuriyyah [Death of a republic] (Beirut: Dar al-Jadid), pp. 206–208. See also Robert G. Rabil (Citation2001) The Maronites and Syrian withdrawal: from 'isolationists' to 'traitors', Middle East Policy, 8(3), p. 23; and Eric Thompson (Citation2002) Will Syria have to withdraw from Lebanon, The Middle East Journal, 56(1), pp. 78–79. 21 Hanf, Coexistence, pp. 309–310. 22 Assad's position was conveyed during his meeting with US special envoy Richard Murphy; see Al-Nahar, April 13, 1986 pp. 1, 8; and Mansour, Mawt Jumhuriyyat, p. 209. 23 Many astute Christian politicians, such as Fouad Boutros who served as foreign minister between 1976 and 1982 shared that view; see Fouad Boutros (Citation2007) al-Muzhakarat [Memoir] (Beirut: Dar al-Nahar), esp. p. 577. 24 For the circumstances surrounding Aoun's appointment as prime minister see Carole Dagher (Citation1992) Genral wa Rihan [A general and a bet] (Beirut: Malaf al-'Alam al-'Arabi), pp. 104–121; Sarkis Na'oum (Citation1992) Michel Aoun: Hilm au Wahm [Michel Aoun: A dream or an illusion] (Beirut, Matba'at al-Mutawasit), pp. 53–62. 25 The agreement, called Wathiqat al-Wifaq al-Watani (the Document of National Understanding), was reached after intense negotiations among Lebanese deputies who were assisted by Arab and US diplomats. The agreement was based on a draft prepared by the Higher Tripartite Arab Committee that was made up of Morocco, Algeria and Saudi Arabia. For a legal and political analysis of the Document of National Understanding, see Joseph Maila (Citation1992) The Document of National Understanding: A Commentary (Oxford: Center for Lebanese Studies). See also Albert Mansour (Citation1993) Al-Inqilab 'ala al-Ta'if [Turning against Ta'if] (Beirut, Dar al-Jadid,); and Farid el-Khazen (Citation2001) Lebanon: Independent No More, Middle East Quarterly, 8(1), pp. 43–50. 26 According to reports, Sfeir was in almost daily contact with the Christian deputies who took part in Ta'if and he tried, through contacts with the French, the Americans and the Vatican, to improve the conditions of Ta'if for the Christians. Sfeir and most of the Christian deputies mainly sought to preserve some of the powers of the presidency, keep that office in the hands of the Maronites on at least a provisional basis, set a timetable for the redeployment of Syrian troops to the Biqa' valley and North Lebanon, and include in the agreement an explicit reference to the rejection of the permanent settlement of the Palestinian refugees in Lebanon. See the profile of Sfeir published by Al-Diyar, December 7, 2001, p. 4; and Al-Diyar, February 1, 1997, p.3. 27 According to reports, the angry demonstrators insulted Sfeir, forcing him to kneel down before a portrait of Aoun; Al-Diyar, December 7, 2001, p. 4. 28 Dagher, Genral wa Rihan, pp. 15–151. 29 Sfeir's support for the Ta'if Accord did not diminish in the postwar era. Sfeir continued to maintain that the problem was not with Ta'if but with the selective and biased manner in which it was implemented by successive postwar governments. 30 Ilyas Hrawi & Camille Menassa (2002) Awdah al-Jumhuriyyah min al-Duwaylat ila al-Dawlah [The return of the republic from the mini-states to the state] (Beirut: Dar Al-Nahar), p. 127. 31 Dagher, Genral wa Rihan, pp. 195–196. 32 Dagher, Genral wa Rihan, p. 176. 33 Promoting Lahoud to the rank of general and appointing him army commander instead of Aoun was the first major decision of newly elected President Hrawi and his Prime Minister Salim Hoss. For Lahoud's appointment see the memoirs of Ilyas Hrawi co-authored with Camille Menassa, 'Awdah al-Jumhuriyyah min al-Duwaylat ila al-Dawlah, p. 127. 34 Rabil, The Maronites and Syrian Withdrawal, p. 27. 35 The statement was issued on October 17, 1990. The text of the statement was obtained from the archives of the Catholic Information Center at Antilyas, Lebanon. 36 See the second part of the profile of Sfeir that appeared in Al-Diyar, December 7, 2001, p. 4. 37 CitationHrawi and Menassa, 'Awdah al-Jumhuriyyah, p. 231. 38 Omar Karami is the younger brother of former Prime Minister Rashid Karami who was assassinated on June 1, 1987. The government he formed on December 24, 1990, included 30 ministers, seven of whom were militia leaders; for the names of the ministers in Karami's government, see Ibid., pp. 231–232. 39 For a brief summary of the Treaty's provisions see Rabil, The Maronites and Syrian Withdrawal, p. 28. 40 Al-Shu'lah (Beirut), July 6, 1991, p. 9; Al-Nahar, May 23, 1991, p. 4. Sfeir was to go back to the issue of the Lebanese-Syrian Treaty in September 1993, describing it as unbalanced. He further noted that the conclusion of a treaty between Lebanon and Syria should have been postponed until after the withdrawal of Syrian troops from Lebanon. See Al-Anwar, September 22, 1993, p. 3. 41 ('But what could the frail voice of the Head of the Maronite Church do facing the Syrian oppressor?') Le Point (Paris), June 27, 1991, p. 24. 42 For the events of May 9, 1992, see Sami E. Baroudi (Citation1998), Economic conflict in postwar Lebanon: State-labor relations between 1992 and 1997, Middle East Journal, 52(4), pp. 531–550. 43 At that time the three principal Maronite leaders in exile were: Raymond Edde, head of the National Bloc; former President Amin Gemayel; and, former Army Commander and head of the military cabinet, Michel Aoun. 44 For the 1992 electoral law see Farid el-Khazen (Citation1993) Al-Intikhabat Al-Niyyabiyyah Al-Oula fi Lubnan Ma Ba'ad al-Harb [The first parliamentary elections in postwar Lebanon: Barricades of the new democracy], in: Farid el-Khazen and Paul Salem (eds), Al-Intikhabat Al-Oula Fi Lubnan Ma Ba'ad Al-Harb: al-Arqam Wa Al-Waqai' Wa Al-dalalat [The first parliamentary elections in postwar Lebanon: The numbers, facts and implications] (Beirut: Al-Markaz Al-Lubnani Lil-Dirasat and Dar Al-Nahar), pp. 29–116. 45 According to one editorial, Sfeir's opposition to the 1992 election partly stemmed from a study that was presented to him and which showed that under the 1992 electoral law the fate of two-thirds of the parliamentary seats would be decided by Muslim voters. For the study see Al-Diyar, July 8, 1992, p. 10. See also Antoine Saad (Citation2005) Al-Sadis wa al-Sab'oun: Mar Nasrallah Boutros Sfeir [The Seventy-Sixth [Patriarch]: Mar Nsrallah Boutros Sfeir], Part 2, 1992–1998, (Beirut: Saer al-Mashraq lil-Nashr wa al-Tawzi'), pp. 13–25. 46 El-Khazen, Lebanon: Independent No More, p. 47. 47 Translated from Arabic by the authors; quoted in Al-Nahar, November 2, 1992, p. 4. Saad also refers to the warm personal relationship between the two leaders (dating back to 1986) which always was characterized by mutual trust; see Saad, Al-Sadis wa al-Sab'oun, Part 2, pp. 48–49, 65. 48 Hariri's first government was formed on November 1, 1992. For its composition see Hrawi and Menassa, Awdah al-Jumhuriyyah, pp. 317–318. 49 Frem was dismissed on August 11 after he refused to resign or to remain in the cabinet as minister without portfolio. The portfolio of Water and Electricity was taken from Frem following a clash with Hariri in June over the signing a US$250 million contract with the Italian company INSALDO to revamp the electricity sector. Hariri backed the contract while Frem opposed it on the ground that the price charged by INSALDO was very high. For details about Frem's dismissal see Hrawi and Menassa, 'Awdah al-Jumhuriyyah, pp. 336–342 50 Nida' al-Watan (Beirut), December 23, 1993, p.2. See also Saad, Al-Sadis wa al-Sab'oun, Part 2, pp. 76–77. 51 Nida' al-Watan (Beirut), December 23, 1993, p.2. See also Saad, Al-Sadis wa al-Sab'oun, Part 2, pp. 76–77 52 Al-Diyar, November 8, 2001, p. 4. 53 Nida' al-Watan, February 27, 1995, p.2. The text of Sfeir's as published in Al-Diyar, April 2, p.2. from Arabic are by April p. and Al-Diyar, April p. and Minister for example, Sfeir's statement on the of Bkirki following a meeting with the see Al-Diyar, April p. 23; Al-Nahar, April 6, p. 4; and Al-Diyar, April 6, p. 5. of Sfeir's was and Minister July During his to Paris in October November Sfeir with Amin Gemayel and Raymond He also had a with Michel Aoun. See Al-Nahar, November p. 4. During a to Paris Sfeir Aoun for the first time since see Al-Nahar, December 1997, p. The second of 49 of the the President of the Republic from a second term before the of from the end of his first Sfeir his opposition to 49 of the in a statement to the see Al-Diyar, April 2, 1995, p. April 8, 1995, p. 8; and Al-Nahar, April 1995, p.3. Al-Nahar, April 8, 1995, April 1995, p. For the of the meeting of the Council of at which the constitutional was see Hrawi and Menassa, 'Awdah al-Jumhuriyyah, pp. October 1995, p. 65 The for the from Paul in June see Dagher, Bring Down the Walls, p. For the work of the see 6 & 7, pp. For the work of the see 6 & 7, p. For the work of the see 6 & 7 For the work of the see 6 & 7, p. for the two of the and which in were one electoral Al-Nahar, September p. 2 See Al-Anwar, August 8, p. 4. Al-Nahar, September p. the Lebanese a new government has to be formed after every parliamentary or The government included only seven new ministers, while 15 ministers from the government their See Al-Nahar, November 8, p. and November 8, in Al-Nahar, November p. 8. In the summer of 1997, Hariri and over Hariri's to the cabinet in to some of the ministers who were to Hrawi or and who opposed his to the price of in to a increase for between Hariri and (and to a between Hariri and Hrawi until the election of a new in October and Hariri's from the in November For coverage of the between Hariri and see (Beirut), October 20, 1997, p. November 24, 1997, p. Al-Nahar, July p. August p. For a of the that Hariri in and see Sami E. Baroudi (Citation2002) in in postwar Lebanon: The of the Hariri and Arab Studies Quarterly, pp. July 1997, Hariri and of his ministers with the leaders of in what was dubbed (the see Al-Nahar, July 22, 1997, p. Al-Nahar, July 23, 1997, p. 9; and Al-Nahar, July 24, 1997, p. 10. See also Baroudi, in in postwar Lebanon, pp. For the text of the see Al-Nahar, 7, p. 5 For the text of the see Al-Nahar, 7, p. 5. ila [The to with (Beirut: p. For a summary of Sfeir's of see Al-Diyar, April p. As a of this Hariri down from the and was by Salim who formed a new government in November Al-Nahar, April p. 4. Al-Diyar, June p. (Beirut), February 7, p. 10. See also the April statement of the Council of Maronite quoted in Al-Nahar, April 6, p. 5. See, for example, the July statement of the Council of Maronite quoted in Al-Nahar, July 6, p. For a of the over the of the see (Citation2002) the The Middle East Journal, pp. For Lahoud's to the Lebanese army to Lebanon, see Al-Nahar, December 9, p. October 27, p. Al-Nahar, May 2001, p. Al-Nahar, May 2001, p. Al-Nahar, August 2001, p. and Al-Nahar, August 1, 2001, p. See also Sami E. Baroudi (Citation2005) relations in A from Arab World pp. Al-Nahar, June 1, p. 5. This was Sfeir's position from the Israel its to end its of Lebanon. See Sfeir's with (Beirut), April p. 5. In its December the Council of Maronite to the subject of the who fled to The the government to their with and It on to that who fled not their government as as their government abandoned The text of the was of the Catholic Information President Lahoud first this position on April following a of Arab He this position see, for example, September p. and (Beirut), April 8, 2001, p. The position was in the statement of Hariri's government and by Hariri before see November 1, pp. October pp. 8; Al-Diyar, November 7, p. and November 7, p. For Sfeir's of the electoral law see December p. and Al-Nahar, June 1, p. 5. than a before the a of Christian former ministers and other figures a of at (the summer of the Maronite of under the of In June Bkirki received Sfeir's for a that the to in the see Al-Nahar, June p. Al-Diyar, August 2, p. 4; Al-Nahar, August p. and Al-Nahar, August p. The the following Maronite Mansour Boutros Pierre Amin Gemayel, Antoine Farid and the also other Christian See April 2001, p. 4; May 2001, p. Al-Nahar, August 23, 2001, p. August 23, 2001, p. 4; Al-Nahar, August 24, 2001, p. 4. See Al-Nahar, September 6, p. 3. The and all from the appeal, are from the of the Catholic Information have a to the Arabic For the Arabic text of the appeal, see September p. 4; and Al-Nahar, September pp. of Council The Syria and Syrian appeared 13 in the The of from Minister Franjieh Franjieh the Maronite of under the of who are by foreign in The September p. see also September p. President Lahoud Bkirki without adopted positions do not the of a and sectarian He on to is to a at Syria, while a to Israel's against in Al-Anwar, September 22, p. and September 22, p. In a the of Lebanon Rashid and the of the Higher Council their at the and their support for the position of President Lahoud on this that the Syrian presence in Lebanon is and see September p. 4. In his two used far to the the of the Council of Maronite took the part of the on September For a summary of the to the in the September 22, see September 23, p. 4. See, in particular, the of the Maronite deputies Boutros Mansour and quoted in The September 23, p. September 23, p. 4; and Al-Nahar, September 23, p. 3. Albert his Maronite in the of the Maronite see Al-Nahar, September 23, p. 4. were made during the parliamentary that were to and on the statement of Hariri's See The November p. Al-Nahar, October 2, p. 4. Patriarch Sfeir Paul had made foreign than all of his In to his to the Vatican, he had every major of the in which the Maronites had a large See, for example, Al-Nahar, 24, 2001, p. 27, 2001, p. Al-Diyar, May 27, 2001, p. (Beirut), June 9, 2001, p. Al-Nahar, June 9, 2001, p. July 23, 2001, p. 8; and Al-Diyar, September 27, 2001, p. 4. November p. 5. in Al-Nahar, November p. 4. See November 27, p. 5. Syria's foreign also noted that the of the Syrian presence in Lebanon was to be by the of the two and that should have a in the see (Beirut), November 27, p. 3. For the coverage of Sfeir's see Al-Nahar, April 2001, pp. 1, 2001, p. 4; 2001, p. 4; and 2001, p. 4. Al-Nahar, 2001, p. Al-Nahar, 2001, p. and 2001, p. 4. Al-Nahar, 2001, p. See Al-Nahar, August 8, 2001, p. 3. See, inter alia, ila pp. The 2001, p. from Arabic by authors; quoted in April 2001, p. See also The April 2001, p. April 7, 2001, p. According to Hariri was of Syria's in with the to down his see ila p. The April 2001, pp. 1, 3. Al-Nahar, April 2001, p. Sfeir Lahoud on June 7, 2001, to the see June 8, 2001, p. 3. his of Syria's in Lebanon, Sfeir of back in intervention on of Lebanon's Christians. were published in Al-Diyar, May 2001, p. see also The May 2001, p. July 23, 2001, p. 8. Al-Nahar, June 27, 2001, p. and The June 2001, p. September 6, 2001, p. 4. September 6, 2001, p. 4 Boutros two to Syria in and 2001, he with Syrian at one President see Al-Diyar, 2001, pp. 2, and April p. 4. See also Fouad Boutros (Citation2007) (Beirut: Dar See, in particular, the and April of the

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