The Craftsmen of Tula

608 Book Reviews TECHNOLOGY AND CULTURE form and direction to the entire colonial enterprise. Mining is seen as the “forge” of Spanish America, the motive force behind colonial urbaniza­ tion and the prime determinant of the communications network. Prieto rectifies the traditional view that mining was an impediment to agricul­ tural exploitation, by pointing out that profits made from mining were often invested in agriculture and stockbreeding. In each case, the Mexi­ can and Andean experiences are discussed together, a synthesis which is the book’s most useful element. The sections on metallurgy and mining technology add nothing new but are based on solid monographs and therefore provide a useful introduction to the subject. Thomas F. Glick* The Craftsmen of Tula: Pioneer Builders of Water-driven Machinery. By A. S. Britkin. Translated from Russian. Jerusalem: Israel Program for Scientific Translations (for the Smithsonian Institution and the National Science Foundation), 1967. Pp. 41. The armories and arsenals of 17th- and 18th-century monarchies were the nurseries of what was to become the modern machine tool and modern standardized interchangeable parts, for it was there that metal­ working machinery for mass production made its first appearance. Gov­ ernments had the money to invest in elaborate plants, and the evergreater scale of contemporary warfare gave them the incentive to en­ courage innovation and seek means of improving existing methods of manufacture. Their growing armies provided virtually the only mass market for uniform metal goods, and the need to assimilate their armies and navies to well-disciplined and organized human machines obliged them to insist as far as possible on the standardization of equipment. Standardization was particularly necessary for their small arms, the weapons of the infantry, whose huge columns took up a large proportion of the available manpower, for the control of their fire required that all weapons be identical and that damaged parts be easily replaced. Most of the information on this type of machinery was kept secret at the time, for governments were naturally chary of letting outsiders de­ scribe or draw the workings of their armaments factories, or even visit them. We know but little of the details of the machines designed by Whitney or Blanc. Hence, with certain famous exceptions, this develop­ ment has remained somewhat obscure, and modern historiography tends to pass over it. Britkin’s The Craftsmen of Tula is one study that will help to supply missing pieces for the puzzle. Although written in 1950 and only now translated, Britkin’s book is not outdated. The main theme is a series of innovative machines that were installed at the Russian state armories of Tula, about 100 miles south of Moscow, shortly after the long-established gunsmiths there * Dr. Glick, of the University of Texas, specializes in the history of Spanish technology. TECHNOLOGY AND CULTURE Book Reviews 6Q9 were reorganized and large-scale water-powered mechanized production introduced, under Peter the Great in 1714-15. The new plant was de­ signed by two leading artisans at the works, Sidorov, a former swordsmith , and Batishchev. Further improvements were carried out a century later, under the stimulus of the Napoleonic Wars, by Zakhava. Detailed descriptions are provided and carefully illustrated. Besides more con­ ventional machines for broaching and boring, all working several mus­ ket barrels at once, external finishing was mechanized too. The files were hollow cylinders, their interior surfaces appropriately serrated, and the barrels were fed into and rotated within them (rather than over them, as would be the case with boring). However, Britkin’s narrative goes on to show how industrial develop­ ment was hampered by an autocratic regime and a hierarchical social system. Some innovative ingenuity there was, and a truly good man could not be kept down. In the early days, successful managers could even hope to be ennobled, at least by Peter the Great. But in general, especially after Peter’s death, it was hard for the most inventive artisan to move far from his original place in society. An able mechanician might be given privileges and a degree of responsibility, but his station in life remained a humble and subordinate one. It cannot be said that brilliant men went unrewarded, but the rewards

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