Determinants of a regional organisation's role in peace and security

This article presents the determinants of the influence of regional organisations in the area of international peace and security. It is aimed at initiating and provoking debate on the preponderant factors shaping that influence. The factors or determinants treated include (1) the willingness of the regional organisation to act, (2) the acceptance of its actions and (3) its capacity to discharge such peace-related tasks. The determinants are contingent on nine sub-determinants. The article uses a comparative approach, focusing on the African Union and the European Union after placing the discussion in the context of the relationship between regional organisations and the United Nations in international peace and security efforts. Keywords: Regional organisationsUnited NationsAfrican UnionEuropean Unioninternational peace and security Acknowledgements The authors acknowledge the support of the EU in the GR:EEN (Global Re-ordering: Evolution through European Networks) project, through which research for this article was funded. They are grateful to the editors of SAJIA and to the reviewers for suggestions that improved the initial draft. Comments made by Ademola Abass and Francis Baert are also appreciated. Notes 1. The term ROs will be used in the paper to refer to what the UN Charter characterise jointly as Regional Arrangements and Agencies. 2. For a discussion of the regional/global role of the EU, see Van Langenhove L & D Marchesi, 'The Lisbon Treaty and the emergence of third generation regional integration', European Journal of Law Reform, X.4, 2008, pp. 477–96. 3. See Van Langenhove L, 'The transformation of multilateralism. mode 1.0 to mode 2.0', Global Policy, 1.3, 2010, pp. 263–70. 4. For important literature and references on the interactions between ROs and the UNSC in fostering international peace and security, see Simma B (ed.), The Charter of the United Nations: A Commentary (2nd edn). Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2002, especially the chapter on Regional Arrangements, Chapter VIII: pp. 806–95. See also Abass Ad, Regional Organizations and the Development of Collective Security: Beyond Chapter VIII of the UN Charter. Oxford: Hart, 2004; Graham K & T Felicio, Regional Security and Global Governance: a Study of Interaction between Regional Agencies and the UN Security Council, With a Proposal for a Regional–Global Security Mechanism (Brussels: VUB Press, 2006). 5. Tavares identifies 38 ROs that are relevant in the discussion on peace and security: Tavares R, Regional Security: The Capacity of International Organizations. Abingdon: Routledge, 2010, p. 5. 6. Hill C, 'The capability–expectations gap, or conceptualizing Europe's international role', Journal of Common Market Studies, 31.3, 1993, p. 314. 7. Henrikson A, 'The growth of regional organizations and the role of the United Nations', in Fawcett L & Andrew Hurrell (eds) Regionalism in World Politics: Regional Organization and International Order. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1995, p. 124. 8. Sidhu S, 'Regional groups and alliances', in Weiss TG & S Daws (eds) The United Nations. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2007, p. 228. 9. Bretherton C & J Vogler, The European Union as a Global Actor. London: Routledge, 2002, p. 5. 10. The region building argument is developed in detail in Van Langenhove L, Building Regions: The Regionalization of the World Order. Aldershot: Ashgate, 2011. 11. Article 52 of the Charter stipulates that regional arrangements or agencies can exist to deal with peace and security if their activities are in line with the aims and principles of the UN. While recognising the fact that they should deal with problems at the regional level before reverting to the UNSC, the Charter unequivocally provides in Article 53 that any actions taken by such ROs must (except in the case of actions against enemy states) be taken with the full authorisation of the UNSC. This stringent obligation is extended to the duty of the ROs to inform the UNSC of any enforcement actions taken as ordained in Article 54 of the Charter. Kodjo argues that Article 24(1) of the UN Charter gives the Security Council a principal yet non exclusive responsibility on issues of international peace and security. He further notes that, on the kinds of actions which ROs might take, the Charter is silent. In Articles 41–3, relating to the kinds of actions that the UNSC may take, ROs are not mentioned, an omission he qualifies as a great lacuna because such are the areas where the Charter could have carved out a clear and long-term mandate for ROs. See Kodjo E, 'Article 53', in Cot JP & A Pellet (eds) United Nations Charter: A Commentary. Paris: Economica, 1991, pp. 816–17. 12. Villani U, 'Les Rapports Entre L'ONU et Les Organisations Régionales Dans le Maintien de la Paix', Recueil des Cours 290, 2001, p. 239. 13. Kodjo E, 'Article 52', in La Charte des Nations Unies: Commentaire Article par Article (sous la Direction de Cot JP et A Pellet). Paris: Economica, 1985, p. 798. Also see, Peyro Llopis, A., Force, ONU et Organisations Régionales: Répartition des Responsabilités en Matière Coercitives. Brussels: Editions Bruylant, 2012. 14. Simma B (ed.) The Charter of the United Nations. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2002, p. 814. This is despite the fact that at the 1944 Tehran Conferences that preceded the UN's birth strong voices supporting the inclusion of ROs had taken a clear upper hand. 15. Ghali BB, 'An Agenda for Peace — Preventive Diplomacy, Peacemaking and Peacekeeping: Report of the Secretary General pursuant to the Statement adopted by the Summit Meeting of the Security Council on 21 January 1992', UN Document A/47/227-S/24111, 17 June 1992. 16. Ghali BB, 'Supplement to an Agenda for Peace: Position Paper of the Secretary General on the Occasion of the Fiftieth Anniversary of the United Nations', UN Document A/50/60-S/1995/1, 3 January 1995. 17. 'Report of the Panel on United Nations Peace Operations', UN Document A/55/305-S/2000/809, 17 August 2000. 18. Annan K, 'In Larger Freedom, Towards Development, Security and Human Rights for All, Report of the Secretary General' (General Assembly Document A/59/2005), 21 March 2005. 19. UNSG, 'A Regional–Global Security Partnership: Challenges and Opportunities, Report of the Secretary-General', General Assembly Security Council Document A/61/204-S/2006/590, 28 July 2006; UNSG, 'Report of the Secretary General on the Relationship between the United Nations and Regional Organizations, in Particular in the African Union, in the Maintenance of International Peace and Security', S/2008/186, March 2008; and UNSG, 'Report of the Secretary General on Cooperation Between Regional and Other Organizations, A/63/228, S/2008/531, August 2008. 20. Tavares R, Regional Security. Abingdon: Routledge, 2010. See also Van Langenhove L, Felicio T & Abass A, 'The UN and regional organizations for peace: Tracking a slippery partnership', in De Lombaerde P, F Baert & T Felicio (eds) The United Nations and the Regions: Third World Report on Regional Integration, 2012, p. 98. 21. UN Security Council, 'Security Council Approves No-fly Zone over Libya Authorizing all Necessary Measures to Protect Civilians by a Vote of Ten in Favour and Five Abstentions', 6498th Meeting SC/10200, 17 March 2011. 22. See UN Security Council, 'Security Council Unanimously Adopts Resolution 2042(2012) Authorizing Advanced Team to Monitor Ceasefire in Syria', UNSC 6751st Meeting SC/10609, 14 April 2012. See also Chulov M, 'UN Security Council to discuss Arab backed Syria Plan', The Guardian, 27 January 2012. 23. Schwartzberg J, 'Weighted regional representation as a basis for Security Council reform', in De Lombaerde P, F Baert & T Felicio (eds) The United Nations and the Regions: Third World Report on Regional Integration. Heidelberg: Springer, 2012, p. 72. 24. Slaughter A-M, 'Regional politics are increasingly a force for global good', The Scotsman, 18 April 2012, at http://www.scotsman.com/the-scotsman/opinion/comment/analysis-regional-politics-are-increasingly-a-force-for-global-good-1-2239519, accessed on 19 April 2012. 25. Pascual C & H Benner, 'Sovereignty's evolution: The role of regions — Regional convergence in a transnational world', in De Lombaerde P, F Baert & T Felicio (eds) The United Nations and the Regions: Third World Report on Regional Integration. Heidelberg: Springer, 2012, p. 18. 26. Drieskens E, 'Measuring regional actorness at the UN Security Council: The EU as a paragon of complexity', in De Lombaerde P, F Baert & T Felicio (eds) The United Nations and the Regions: Third World Report on Regional Integration. Heidelberg: Springer, 2012, p. 60. 27. Van Langenhove L, 'Regional integration and the individualism/collectivism dichotomy', Asia Europe Journal, 2004, 2, pp. 104–5 (making a call for the creation of a Regional Integration Fund at the UN level). Without direct reference, Habermas also alludes to the vital and increased role being played by supranational institutions: see Habermas J, Après l'état-nation: Une nouvelle constellation politique (Frankfurt: Fayard, 2000), p. 33. The promise for the regional level is also underscored by Falk: Falk R, 'Regionalism and world order: The changing global setting', in Söderbaum F & T Shaw (eds) Theories of New Regionalism. Basingstoke: Palgrave, 2003, p. 77. 28. See Weitz R, 'Global Insights: No UN Security Council reform, no problem', World Politics Review, 4 January 2011, http://www.worldpoliticsreview.com/articles/7449/global-insights-no-u-n-security-council-reform-no-problem, accessed 17 June 2012. 29. Cassese A, International Law (2nd edn). Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2005, p. 11 (discussing incorporation of international rules into national legislation). 30. See Piris J-C, The Future of Europe: Towards a Two-Speed EU? Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2012, pp. 33–5. 31. In the case of the EU's case see Craig D & M Elliot, The Great European Rip-off: How the Corrupt, Wasteful EU is Taking Control of our Lives. London: Random House, 2009, p. 7. 32. See Adedeji A, 'You must first set your house in order', Africa Renewal, 16.2–3, September 2002, p. 16. Also at http://www.un.org/en/africarenewal/vol16no2/162pers1.htm. 33. Coleman K, International Organizations and Peace Enforcement: The Politics of International Legitimacy. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2007, p. 15. 34. Malan M, 'Regional power politics under the cover of SADC: Running amok with a mythical organ', ISS Occasional Paper, 35, October 1998. 35. Sidhu S, 'Regional groups and alliances', in Weiss TG & S Daws (eds) The United Nations. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2007, p. 228. p. 220. 36. Graham K & T Felicio, Regional Security and Global Governance: A Study of Interaction between Regional Agencies and the UN Security Council, With a Proposal for a Regional-Global Security Mechanism Brussels: VUB Press, 2006. 37. Hoffmeister, F. & P-J Kuijper, 'The status of the European Union at the United Nations: Institutional Ambiguities and Political Realities,' in Wouters J, F Hoffmeister & T Ruys (eds) The United Nations and the European Union: An Ever Stronger Partnership. The Hague: TMC Asser, 2006, p. 17. 38. Henrikson A, 'The growth of regional organizations and the role of the United Nations', in Fawcett L & Andrew Hurrell (eds) Regionalism in World Politics: Regional Organization and International Order. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1995, p. 165. 39. It is important to make a distinction between regional groups and the UN and regional organisations. Regional groups consisting of member states from the various regions play a greater role in the intergovernmental process on all issues ranging from peace and security, human rights and economic and social development. There are five regional groups through which inter-governmental business is transacted. These are Group of African States; Group of Asian States; Group of Latin American and Caribbean States; Group of East European States; and the Group of West European and Other States. Seats in the Security Council and other principal organs of the UN are allocated according to that regional division. Africa and Europe are almost the only regions where the regional organisations, AU and EU, play an important role in the maintenance of peace and security. 40. Tavares R, Regional Security. Abingdon: Routledge, 2010, p. 6. 41. The meeting was held in the form of a retreat between the UN Secretary General and heads of regional organisations at the Greentree Estate, Long Island, New York, 11–12 January 2010. At least 14 regional entities were represented including: the EU, Caribbean Community, Organization of Islamic Conference, Pacific Island Forum, AU, Intergovernmental Authority on Development, League of Arab States, Shanghai Cooperation Organization, South Asia Association of Regional Cooperation, Organization for Security and Cooperation in Europe, North Atlantic Treaty Organisation, Southern African Development Community, Organization of American States and the Economic Community of West African States. There is no available record that details the criteria used to select these entities and not others. Another meeting between the Secretary General and heads of regional organizations was held in 2012. 42. Habermas J, Communication and the Evolution of Society. Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 1995, p. 178. 43. Bosco D, Five to Rule Them All: The UN Security Council and the Making of the Modern World. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2009, p. 250. 44. France has the program on Reinforcing African Peacekeeping Capacities and the Peacekeeping School. The British Army operates the British Peace Support Team in East Africa. 45. Beginning with the Clinton Administration's African Crisis Response Initiative, later refashioned under the Bush Administration into the African Contingency Operations Training and Assistance programme, the United States has worked with the AU and other regional and national bodies to build African human resource capacity for peacekeeping and humanitarian relief efforts on the continent. 46. Tavares R, Regional Security. Abingdon: Routledge, 2010, p. 17. 47. See T Valasek, 'Surviving Austerity: The Case for a New Approach to EU Military Collaboration', Centre for European Reform, April 2011, p. 4. 48. Malan M, 'The OAU and African sub-regional organisations: A closer look at the peace pyramid', Institute for Security Studies, Occasional Paper, 36, January 1999. 49. Baimu E & K Sturman, 'Amendment to the African Union's right to intervene: A shift from human security to regime security?', African Security Review, 12.2, 2003. Available online at http://www.iss.co.za/pubs/asr/12No2/AfWat.html, accessed on 19 April 2012. 50. See R Youngs, 'European foreign policy and the economic crisis: What impact and how to respond', FRIDE Working Paper, 111 (2011), p. 20 (noting that the internal economic crisis is EU's external image). See also Richard Young's, Europe's Decline and Fall: The Struggle against Global Irrelevance. London: Profile, 2010. 51. AU Constitutive Act, Article 3(f). 52. TFEU, Article 3(1). 53. Biscop S & T Renard, 'The European Union as a security actor: Cooperative materialism', Security and Human Rights, 21.1, 2010, p. 13. 54. See Tieku TK, 'Explaining the clash and accommodation of interests of major actors in the creation of the African Union', African Affairs, 103, 2004, pp. 253–6. 55. Møller B, 'The African Union as security actor: African solutions to African problems?', Working Paper Regional and Global Axes of Conflict of the Danish Institute of International Studies, 57, August 2009, p. 2. 56. Neethling T, 'Reflections on norm dynamics: South African foreign policy and the no-fly zone over Libya', South African Journal of International Affairs, 19.1, April 2012, pp. 25–42. 57. Baert F, T Felicio & P De Lombaerde, 'Introduction', in De Lombaerde P, F Baert & T Felicio (eds) The United Nations and the Regions: Third World Report on Regional Integration. Heidelberg: Springer, 2012, p. 2. 58. Murithi T, 'The African Union's evolving role in peace operations: The African Union mission in Burundi, the African Union Mission in Sudan and the African Union Mission in Somalia', African Security Review, 17.1, 2008, p. 78. 59. Murithi T, 'The African Union's evolving role in peace operations: The African Union mission in Burundi, the African Union Mission in Sudan and the African Union Mission in Somalia', African Security Review, 17.1, 2008, p. 77. 60. Biscop S & SG Gibney, 'Multilateralism at the heart of the european security strategy', EU GRASP Working Paper, 13, June 2010, p. 9. 61. Abass A, 'UN cooperation with regional organizations in peacekeeping operations', in De Lombaerde P, F Baert & T Felicio (eds) The United Nations and the Regions: Third World Report on Regional Integration. Heidelberg: Springer, 2012, p. 125. 62. CIA World Factbook, https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/rankorder/2001rank.html?countryName=European%20Union&countryCode=ee®ionCode=eur&rank=1#ee (date accessed 22 June 2012). 63. Tavares R, 'The false promise of regional organizations?' in in De Lombaerde P, F Baert & T Felicio (eds) The United Nations and the Regions: Third World Report on Regional Integration. Heidelberg: Springer, 2012, p. 131. 64. Tieku TK, 'African union promotion of human security in Africa', African Security Review, 16.2, 2007, pp. 29–33. 65. Zielonka J, 'Europe as a global actor: Empire by example?', International Affairs, 84.3, 2008, p. 475. 66. Murithi T, 'The African Union's evolving role in peace operations: The African Union mission in Burundi, the African Union Mission in Sudan and the African Union Mission in Somalia', African Security Review, 17.1, 2008. 67. De Jong S, S Sterkx & J Wouters, 'The EU as a regional actor: Regional conflicts', EU GRASP Working Paper, 7, February 2010, pp. 18–19

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