Insights into pine wilt disease

Pine Wilt Disease caused by B. xylophilus threatens pine forests worldwide. • B. mucronatus exhibits low pathogenicity but may affect stressed or weakened trees. • Genomic and proteomic analyses reveal species-specific differences in virulence. • Climate change increases pathogenicity and distribution of both nematodes species. • Fast and reliable detection methods are essential for Pine Wilt Disease management. Pine wilt disease (PWD), caused by the pinewood nematode, Bursaphelenchus xylophilus , is a major ecological and economic threat to pine forests worldwide. Native to North America, B. xylophilus , considered a quarantine species by the European and Mediterranean Plant Protection Organisation, has spread to Asia and Europe, causing severe damage to pine species and resulting in substantial economic and ecological losses. The Bursaphelenchus genus, also includes the species B. mucronatus , the B. xylophilus closest related species, sharing similar morphological and ecological characteristics. To date, no major economic or ecological damage has been caused by B. mucronatus . However, over the years, some studies have suggested that it has a certain degree of pathogenicity in stressed trees, particularly those under drought and heat stress. This review provides a comprehensive synthesis of current knowledge on both species, covering their biology, distribution, life cycle, and methods for morphological and molecular identification. We further examine the known pathogenicity mechanisms, drawing from transcriptomic, genomic, and proteomic studies. By integrating recent advances across multiple disciplines, this review aims to clarify the similarities and distinctions between these two species, identify knowledge gaps, and contribute to future research and management strategies

Bursaphelenchus xylophilus · Invasive species · Mediterranean climate · Pathogenicity · Quarantine · Wilt disease · Xylophilus · Entomopathogenic Microorganisms in Pest Control · Nematode management and characterization studies · Phytoplasmas and Hemiptera pathogens