Elements of Tibetan Buddhism in the Chinese Esoteric Ritual Manuals of Akṣobhyavajra 不動金剛

Some verses from Tibetan Buddhism, unfamiliar in Chinese Buddhism, are found among the Chinese esoteric Buddhist ritual manuals used at present in Chinese temples. These are particularly prominent in the esoteric ritual manuals written by the monk Akṣobhyavajra, active during the Xixia 西夏 and Song 宋 periods (ca. mid 11th to late 13th centuries). The Tibetan Buddhist elements in these ritual manuals are not seen in other Song period Chinese manuals, and may be conjectured to have been introduced to these manuals by Akṣobhyavajra, who had been influenced by Tibetan elements in Xixia Buddhism. However, the verses from Tibetan Buddhism found in his Chinese ritual manuals were interpreted differently by Chinese Buddhist monks after Akṣobhyavajra, and Tibetan Buddhist teachings seem to have not been accepted into Chinese Buddhism through them

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