Global perspectives on heritage language education and emotion

Fear, anxiety, and uncertainty creep into the confidence the learner has previously placed in their knowing and is reflective of a very chaotic transitional period. Senses are overloaded with unfamiliar knowledges, thoughts, and reflections that disrupt a familiar and comfortable sense of being and knowing, but once in the middle we must press on through to the other side or be carried away by fear—the fear of myths and stereotypes that have, until now, informed how we have come to know (Styres, 2019, p. 29). Recent decades have seen exponential growth in attention to two research areas in second language acquisition (SLA), which—until now—have continued along two relatively separate and independent paths. On the one hand, scholars have focused steadily increased interest in better understanding the relationships between language learning and emotions (e.g., Agudo, 2018; Dewaele & Li, 2020; Dörnyei et al., 2014; Simons & Smits, 2020), which has led to an exciting evolution of language classroom initiatives footed in affective dynamics and emotional well-being in SLA (e.g., Helgesen, n.d.). At the same time, the field of heritage language education (HLE) has also seen a tremendous boost, with dedicated scholars who continue to explore new theories and teaching practices in language learning geared toward fostering successful and healthy learning spaces for heritage language learners (HLLs). As these bodies of work continue to expand, and educators spearhead initiatives for pedagogies that serve heritage speakers, their families, and HLE stakeholders, the absence of research dedicated to exploring emotional variables among this population of learners becomes more apparent and, at times, problematic for the field as a whole. The term heritage speaker (HS) is often used to refer to individuals who grew up exposed to a nonmajority language at home (i.e., the heritage language) and a socially dominant majority language. It includes community (Wiley, 2005) and Indigenous language learners (Fairclough & Beaudrie, 2016). The heritage language (HL) is typically acquired in the household through naturalistic interaction with relatives, caretakers, and the familial network (Pascual y Cabo & Rothman, 2012), leading HSs to develop varying degrees of bilingualism in the heritage and majority languages while maintaining a strong cultural connection to the HL (Valdés, 2001). At the heart of the concept lie asymmetric power differentials characterizing the relationships between the heritage and majority languages and their social, political, and educational ramifications, which, taken together, shape many of the experiences lived by HSs in different contexts. Due to this convergence of pressures, allusions to the emotional aspect of HLE and HS bilingualism have been present for a long time in the literature, but explicit efforts to understand them have remained minimal (e.g., Prada et al., 2020). This special issue addresses apparent gaps and investigates the complex interplay between HLs and emotions by approaching it from a global perspective that goes beyond Western and/or Global North conceptualizations of the terms. In doing so, this collection of articles takes up a large degree of freedom in its conceptualization of who counts as an HS, what constitutes an HL, and which emotional aspects are brought into focus. Additionally, the articles employ a methodological diversity in the hopes of stimulating new approaches to and conceptualizations of the study of emotions in (and beyond) HLE. Capitalizing on the above, in this introductory article, we lay out key theoretical cornerstones underpinning the emotional–affective turn in HL studies. To that end, we first turn to providing a brief snapshot of emotion research in SLA and HLE as growing, yet largely disconnected, fields of work. Various models within the behavioral and neurosciences (Barrett & Satpute, 2017; Butler, 2017; LeBlanc et al., 2015; Li et al., 2020; Pessoa, 2018), as well as in SLA (Dewaele & Li, 2020; Gregersen et al., 2014; Wang, 2020), highlight the theoretical and pedagogical implications of affective variables in learning processes. These models have forged pathways for new instruments (e.g., Dewaele & MacIntyre, 2014; Li, 2023), methodologies (e.g., MacIntyre, 2012), and psychosocial movements (e.g., Multilingual Learning Toolkit, 2023; Pishghadam et al., 2013) solidly situating emotion in language learning. Still, though the growing number of scholars addressing emotions in SLA gives ample opportunity to investigate myriad variables and contexts and evaluate the implications for language classrooms, the literature has been largely insensitive to the diversity of language learning contexts and learners’ sociolinguistic profiles. As a result, significant questions can be posed regarding the validity and implications of existing work for a global audience, as classrooms in Western countries have remained the main focal point in these agendas. A close inspection of the research on emotions in SLA reveals an overwhelming representation of so-called second language (L2) or foreign language (FL) learners and learning contexts, with heritage, migrant, and minoritized languages and Indigenous learner communities largely absent in empirical work. In addition, a majority of the research bases itself on Western and Global North conceptualizations of emotion, which results in a very narrow realm of emotional dynamics that may not apply to multilingual and multicultural learners. Moreover, this focus on the L2 or FL learner may fail to recognize emotions that have not been detected or acknowledged within traditional L2 learning paradigms, or otherwise translate into assumptions of similarity between L2 and FL learners and other learner types. For example, though linguistic insecurity has appeared in narrative work with HLL populations (e.g., Coryell & Clark, 2009; Tseng, 2021), the number of empirical studies addressing this intersection is minimal (e.g., Driver, 2023). Therefore, larger efforts are yet to be seen that situate the HLL experience within emotions research in SLA. In short, broader learner populations have received little attention, leaving the emotional aspects of minoritized—and often racialized—forms of multilingualism out of most research agendas (Prada et al., 2020), and the field largely unaware of and ill prepared for the emotional dynamics that might arise in HL contexts. Indeed, with expanding patterns of globalization, the number of HSs around the world continues to rise, and this population has attracted particular attention in SLA. Even so, the topic of emotion is largely overlooked by scholars in HLE or mentioned as an afterthought to other central investigative concerns. This is so even as emotional themes, such as shame and embarrassment, are often included in narrative accounts of HS experiences. To be clear, much of the HL research alluding to emotions that does exist still often assumes a one-to-one parallel for emotional reactions and implications between L2 and HL settings. This poses particular problems for (a) conceptualizing emotions within HL contexts, (b) preparing educators and guardians for the negative emotions that might arise in HL learning environments, and (c) assessing whether the beneficial effects of thus-far-studied positive emotions apply within HLE. Within SLA, for example, anxiety has been long identified as a common negative emotion in L2 classrooms, and there has been considerable research leading to practical pedagogical interventions to make use of positive emotions, such as enjoyment, to combat anxiety for L2 learners. For HSs, however, the field remains largely uninformed by research into the variety of emotions involved in HL learning, such as linguistic insecurity and generational trauma, or how to successfully create positive and effective learning environments for HL speakers. Given HSs’ intimate social, intercultural, and historical connections to their HL, HLE is never an emotionally neutral endeavor, and consideration of the emotional connections and implications of HL contexts is highly warranted. With foci on the social (Fischer & Manstead, 2008) and physiological (Caldwell-Harris et al., 2011) effects of emotion, terms like emotion and mood are often used interchangeably and are only vaguely defined in the literature. Within cognitive science, emotions are conceptualized as “short-lived, feeling-arousal-purposive-expressive phenomena that help us adapt to opportunities and challenges that we face during important life events” (Reeve, 2009, p. 301). They are, by nature, multidimensionally complex and inseparable from context. The term affect generally takes on a broader meaning, to include emotions, moods, feelings, as well as attitudes that condition (i.e., affect) behavior (Arnold, 1999). Within SLA, emotion and affect together are now understood as cornerstones of cognition and learning (e.g., Dewaele, 2010) and key components driving language learning experiences and outcomes. Research on emotions and affect in SLA has a strong footing in empirical work on FL anxiety (e.g., Horwitz, 1986)—the emotion that largely dominated the field for some 30 years—and motivation (e.g., Dörnyei, 1994; Gardner & Smythe, 1981), two realms which have received steady attention since around the 1980s and have largely developed side-by-side. Encouragingly, research on emotion in SLA has evolved far past FL anxiety to address a wider range of emotional variables (e.g., shame and guilt; Teimouri, 2018). In fact, a drive to cope with FL anxiety and negative emotions in general, coupled with an enthusiasm to promote stronger FL motivation and overall FL well-being slowly but surely promoted attention to the implications of positive emotions in SLA, particularly in the last decade. This trend, known as the positive psychology turn in SLA (MacIntyre et al., 2016), has inspired a renewed and vibrant dedication to the beneficial implications of positive FL emotions and attitudes, such as FL enjoyment (e.g., Dewaele & MacIntyre, 2014; Resnik & Schallmoser, 2019; Zheng & Zhou, 2022), self-efficacy (e.g., Goetze & Driver, 2022), and self-beliefs (e.g., Kyo, 2021; Mercer, 2011), and student and teacher well-being (e.g., Gregersen et al., 2023), further extending the scope of research on the emotional aspects of FL learning. Indeed, the history of research on emotions in SLA has seen an exciting trajectory of continuous exploration into novel methodologies (e.g., Driver, 2021b; MacIntyre, 2012), from unique perspectives (e.g., Iida, 2012) and with an increasingly broad community of stakeholders in FL learning (e.g., Martin, 2023; Sudina et al., 2021). Promisingly, trends toward globalization and initiatives in critical themes in SLA continue to push the field forward toward diverse perspectives, emotions, and epistemologies, such as research on peace of mind (外语平和心态, waiyu pinghe xintai; e.g., Zhou et al., 2021) blossoming from Eastern cultural traditions and the recent development of transformative positive psychology (Mercer & Gregersen, 2023), with anchors in social justice and well-being. Still, the research on emotions specifically with respect to HLs has been minimal to date. Around the time scholarly work in emotions was getting under way, interest in HLs and HLE was also seeing its earlier origins in SLA (e.g., Cummins, 1983; Valdés, 1989). In addition to efforts put into defining HL (e.g., Brutt-Griffler & Makoni, 2005; Carreira, 2004; Valdés, 2005; Van Deusen-Scholl, 2003) and investigating the language characteristics (e.g., patterns of grammar use, syntax, and pronunciation; Ilieva, 2012; Yoneda, 2010) of HSs, the following decades saw research with respect to myriad themes that came to bring together a group of scholars dedicated to exploring language policies and politics affecting HL maintenance (e.g., Bale, 2010; Burnley, 1994; Seals & Shah, 2018), questions of HS biliteracy (e.g., Li, 2006), and initiatives to promote education and pedagogical and methodologies specifically for (e.g., 2020). in emotion out to explore new variables and contexts in SLA, their in HLE to of HL learning (e.g., and language (e.g., 2019; 2021). as the positive psychology turn was the field of SLA, a and growing dedication to critical language (e.g., 2018), critical pedagogies (e.g., et al., & 2023), and social justice initiatives being within HLE. as the work in affect continues to increasingly diverse language learning contexts, HL scholars critical such as and emotional in to successful and HL learning spaces and, HS well-being a range of contexts (e.g., & Driver, 2021; Makoni, 2018). the two fields of emotions in SLA and HLE have evolved from toward very and studies have focused on the interplay between HL experiences and emotions, opportunities exist for attention to the topic (e.g., et al., 2019; 2021; language policies and social have the power to HL motivation negative emotions and attitudes toward the HL (e.g., 2019; geared toward HL classrooms have the to an of emotions, from and to and (e.g., Driver, which can HL learning for better or the between emotions and HLs by be conceptualized as HSs’ sociolinguistic experiences can to emotions toward the HL, while or emotions toward the HL may affect and experiences in the HL, and multilingual policies within and community In to address the between emotions and sociolinguistic and the implications of the interaction between and emotion, this special issue takes a global perspective to exploring emotions in HLE. affective variables a central in these central affective variables to in might positive and negative emotional and to affect heritage language experiences and research questions to not only affective from a perspective that have yet to be acknowledged within the literature (e.g., and Driver, this but also how the emotional of the HL to the L2 emotional that has been the focus of the field as well as the implications for world language first two research as a in that are to HL experiences but still us to HL emotions within the realm of language learning that includes learners from diverse linguistic profiles. research addresses the that positive emotions (e.g., may not the same power negative heritage emotions (e.g., linguistic the diverse learning contexts that can the HL experience (e.g., is to on the that emotions in HL learning, use, and teaching and to these new toward the of pedagogical spaces that emotional and for studies in this special issue and and adapt traditional instruments and used with FL learners to investigate emotion for HSs within and community contexts for a diversity of minoritized and and Indigenous languages and around the the interplay of emotions during HL maintenance from the perspective of and & this through classroom and the of HL the from the home this through & this this and & this and into HL spaces this explore the use of common instruments in L2 emotion for HLE contexts and methodological for and of emotions for HLE & this Van & this from the range of language contexts (e.g., and also an of HLs and conceptualizations of emotion for a diversity of stakeholders, HL speakers, and This special issue together exploring emotion and HLE by the that not only previously affective positive this Van & this and negative emotions & this motivation & this and teacher and learner & this also variables in SLA and specifically to such as this this & this and this in HL learning and use, and a and this explore their experiences with HL highlight of linguistic and also and with HL in the and in from and the of emotion involved in HL maintenance for and and the that can arise during efforts to language policies that HL and by a and of the implications of HL can who with caretakers, such as at HL and initiatives that well-being for and guardians during the of HL this challenges common with to language policies in HLE through a study of a in the on of and with how HL in the even in can motivation and confidence in the This study the concept of or the emotional experience and of through and from a life into the HLE literature and to positive psychology by positive experiences and emotions that address to use the This study an of how caretakers, who are often in the HL can use language as an for positive emotional experiences with the In the of majority and heritage languages of the HL classroom and language within HL also to pedagogical that can be used to and successful HL maintenance through positive In a critical study at a community HL in the this on the between heritage language and in a unique exploration of and within HL learning. is on a of and from of and from and with and and with stakeholders, the how and and HL learners opportunities to their emotions of in and community and develop a sense of to the heritage Moreover, HSs’ of social to a that is defined by a of the and with which HSs come into In how around and language create opportunities for HSs to a sense of with the broader to conceptualizations and of for HL within the of an HL and this explore emotion (i.e., that individuals the of their and for highly community of education HL for in are on from classroom one focus and educational as and study with HL this study and connections between to promote the heritage language and their in the emotion of HL and emotions, and with and community stakeholders but also in to their heritage, or consideration of emotion and within the of and community power dynamics a within HLE. have particular implications for HL teacher and learner and emotional in language which have in number since the and of A by Van and this used in a multilingual and the power of language teaching research and pedagogical for addressing emotion in HL a strong of from the and with in from a diversity of HL the positive and negative emotions and attitudes of learners toward their and highlight the implications of language policies and language for HSs’ attitudes and to use their addressing HL use and multilingual initiatives within a general, education Van and a for language for to the HL emotional well-being of of multilingual particularly HL and are not and this research on the L2 Dörnyei, from an Indigenous HL which has been particularly within affect in SLA. They highlight the central of Indigenous in exploring Indigenous HL motivation and the Indigenous heritage as a novel and of L2 with from different Indigenous in the Indigenous language and as in Indigenous HL motivation and the of a (i.e., other within Indigenous HL contexts. the power of the Indigenous heritage and in and classroom for Indigenous and highlight the of emotional such as and as to the Indigenous heritage In addition, the study connection and to as well as language and as of Indigenous HL In at HL motivation from Indigenous and Eastern perspectives, and to and pedagogical to Indigenous and HL contexts. and from HSs in the from different HL this emotions to and in the HL The study is one of the in the field to work with not only HL but also HL educators who as HSs, and on the emotional and with the HL teacher for from language minoritized In patterns of and as well as and that from (i.e., and social experiences (e.g., through that many HSs and into the HL results to for fostering HL spaces that HS well-being and on connections with and critical to and a for and in HLE and SLA. the of heritage communities and to the affective that are specifically in HL contexts, this special issue educators with to theoretical pedagogical and that are largely even among HLE The of this special issue to attention and from scholars and educators from a diversity of in and as well as among educators with diverse student As emotion is as a central topic of interest in the social and HLE continues to its and as its field within SLA and the for research addressing questions around affect for and multilingual communities becomes in mind the diversity within and HS and through the of theoretical and methodological by in this special we to a and more understanding of the theoretical and pedagogical implications of emotion on language learning. The global perspective by with and from central and around the world further the and of this special issue to an of are that this issue the field forward through an of emotion research into learner populations and contexts. A of and in this special issue with respect to questions theoretical and of emotion and language learning that have far to the (i.e., population that has been within emotions and SLA, as well as the often (i.e., as to of heritage contexts in HLE. It is only in together into the of linguistic contexts, and stakeholders that HLE that theoretical can be with respect to emotion research in the wider scope of SLA. For example, the majority of theoretical in emotion and SLA, such as the of positive emotions by the have been largely from Western perspectives, which the of main in the theories in L2 emotion may be used as in the exploration of emotion in as for this separate context. In a global of HL emotions that includes heritage and Indigenous learners and the many complex of HL learning, this issue to at the the of emotion that have been in the L2 literature and which may have the of emotion in HLE. together scholars exploring different aspects of emotion an of Global and Global North HL contexts, this special issue the to broader theoretical and pedagogical implications from particular study and out on new to push the field This collection of articles also to important implications for HL learning and the emotions that HSs experience a range of example, in of language and maintenance & this & this in & this at home this and in & this & this Driver, this this and & this this exploring the and effects of these emotions, educators with and into the between emotion, diverse language and language learning outcomes. L2 or FL learning, HLE and learning experiences in the at and within social exploring and diverse contexts of in this issue educators in how to HSs’ and and the Additionally, in to the emotional experiences and of HSs and how these may from of their FL this special issue might beneficial for of diverse and pedagogical implications are from perspectives that into not only Western of learning and but also from learning contexts, such as the power of in HL which the for more pedagogical and for HL and Indigenous educators a range of on the that have the for emotions research in SLA, the studies in this special issue exciting and areas of on the methodological and approaches in this research into HLs and emotions may out to perspectives, and conceptualizations into emotion research that approaches into models to toward by Dewaele this and this on the studies in this special issue to address questions from a global perspective and highlight the broader and emotion that are by a of and the implications for In HL contexts as not only but of the research and pedagogies in emotions in SLA, this issue to HL and Indigenous language and community to their and HLE as a perspective to be and in the

Heritage language · Linguistics · Pedagogy · Sociology · EFL/ESL Teaching and Learning · Multilingual Education and Policy · Philosophy · Psychology · Second Language Learning and Teaching

• Heritage language, identity, and belonging in contexts of forced migration

  Open Access•Huiling Cui, Yunzhe Huang et al.•Journal of Multilingual and…•2026

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• The Emotional Work of Heritage Language Maintenance

  Open Access•Guofang Li, Zhen Lin•Education Sciences•2025

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• How do secondary schools in England talk about modern languages? A corpus‐assisted discourse analysis of school websites

  Open Access•Zhu Hua, Yunpeng Du et al.•British Educational Research…•2026

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• Forging common ground in second language acquisition and teaching

  Open Access•Marije Michel, D Atkinson et al.•Modern Language Journal•2025

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• A “positive” turn in heritage language education

  Open Access•Yue Zhou, Yongcan Liu•System•2024

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• Trauma‐Informed Language Teaching

  Open Access•Ava Becker, Ava Becker-Zayas•Language and Linguistics Compass•2026

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• The more languages you know, the better you are’

  Open Access•Giulia Sulis, Astrid Mairitsch et al.•Journal of Multilingual and…•2025

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• Language learner well-being in heritage language learning

  Open Access•Yue Zhou, Yongcan Liu•International Journal of…•2025

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• Affect in language learning

  Jane Arnold•Affect in language learning•1999

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• Motivational Dynamics in Language Learning

  Zoltán Dörnyei, Peter D Macintyre et al.•Motivational Dynamics in Language…•2014

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• Positive Psychology in SLA

  Peter D Macintyre, Tammy Gregersen et al.•Positive psychology in SLA•2016

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• Biliteracy and trilingual practices in the home context

  Open Access•Guofang Li•Journal of Early Childhood Literacy•2006

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• Bilingualism, Heritage Language Learners, and SLA Research

  Open Access•Guadalupe Valdes•Modern Language Journal•2005

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• Differential Roles of Shame and Guilt in L2 Learning

  Open Access•Yasser Teimouri•Modern Language Journal•2018

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• The L2 Motivational Self System

  Zoltán Dörnyei•Motivation, Language Identity and…•2009

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• The Motion of Emotion

  Open Access•Tammy Gregersen, Peter D Macintyre et al.•Modern Language Journal•2014

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• ‘Qué barbaridad, son latinos y deberían saber español primero’

  Open Access•Amelia Tseng•Applied Linguistics•2021

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• The growth trajectories of L2 self-efficacy and its effects on L2 learning

  Open Access•O H Young Kyo•Applied Linguistics•2022

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• The (Il)Logical Problem of Heritage Speaker Bilingualism and Incomplete Acquisition

  Diego Pascual Y Cabo, Joshua Rothman•Applied Linguistics•2012

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• Emotion-Laden Texts and Words

  Open Access•Meagan Driver•Studies in Second Language…•2022

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• Negotiating family language policy

  Open Access•Nermin Cantas•Modern Language Journal•2024

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• Primary school children's conflicted emotions about using their heritage languages in multilingual classroom tasks

  Open Access•Koen Van Gorp, Steven Verheyen•Modern Language Journal•2024

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• Yalla Nutbikh “Let's cook”

  Open Access•Rima Elabdali•Modern Language Journal•2024

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• Intergenerational autoethnography of heritage language maintenance

  Open Access•Juyoung Song, Amber E Wu•Modern Language Journal•2024

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• Heritage identity and Indigenous language learning motivation

  Open Access•Hung Tzu Huang, Hsin Yu Chan•Modern Language Journal•2024

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• Critical Language Awareness (CLA) for Spanish Heritage Language Programs

  Claudia Holguín Mendoza•International Multilingual…•2018

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• Foreign language peace of mind

  Li Zhou, Jean-Marc Dewaele et al.•Applied Linguistics Review•2023

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• Physiological reactivity to emotional phrases in Mandarin—English bilinguals

  Open Access•Catherine L Caldwell-Harris, Jimmy Tong et al.•International Journal of…•2011

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• Hindi Heritage Language Learners’ Performance during OPIs

  Gabriela Nik Ilieva•Heritage Language Journal•2012

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• Beyond Country of Birth

  Busi Makoni•Heritage Language Journal•2018

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• Seeking Explanatory Adequacy

  María M Carreira, Maria Carreira•Heritage Language Journal•2004

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• Heritage Language Anxiety in Two Spanish Language Classroom Environments

  Josh Prada, Paola Guerrero‐Rodríguez et al.•Heritage Language Journal•2020

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• Critical Pedagogy beyond the Classroom Walls

  Jennifer Leeman, Lisa Rabin et al.•Heritage Language Journal•2011

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• “Physiologically, I am hearing, but psychologically, I am Deaf.” Identity

  Nomfundo Moroe•Journal of Psychology in Africa•2019

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• Positive Influence of Cooperative Learning and Emotion Regulation on EFL Learners’ Foreign Language Enjoyment

  Open Access•Songyun Zheng, Xiang Zhou•International Journal of…•2022

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• Toward a Definition of Heritage Language

  Nelleke Van Deusen-Scholl•Journal of Language Identity &…•2003

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• Measuring and understanding linguistic insecurity in heritage and foreign language contexts

  Meagan Y Driver, Meagan Driver•Journal of Multilingual and…•2025

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• Transformative positive psychology in the acquisition of additional languages

  Open Access•Shanara Mercer, Tammy Gregersen•Journal of Multilingual and…•2025

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• The development and validation of a scale for measuring L2 learning experience

  Open Access•Zixuan Li•Journal of Multilingual and…•2025

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• Mindsets and family language pressure

  Open Access•Yeşim Sevinç•Journal of Multilingual and…•2022

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• The Role of Affect in Intraindividual Variability in Task Performance for Young Learners

  Open Access•Yuko Goto Butler•TESOL Quarterly•2017

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• Development and Initial Validation of the L2‐Teacher Grit Scale

  Open Access•Ekaterina Sudina, Tony Vernon et al.•TESOL Quarterly•2021

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• Preliminary Evidence for the Reliability and Validity of a Foreign Language Anxiety Scale

  Elaine K Horwitz•TESOL Quarterly•1986

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• Heritage Languages in America

  Carmen Chaves Tesser, Joy Kreeft Peyton et al.•Hispania•2003

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• One Right Way, Intercultural Participation, and Language Learning Anxiety

  Open Access•Joellen E Coryell, M Carolyn Clark•Foreign Language Annals•2009

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• Immigration, Ancestry and Residence in Sydney

  Open Access•I H Burnley•Australian Geographical Studies•1994

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• Uchinaaguchi Learning through Indigenous Critical Pedagogy

  Open Access•Yumiko Ohara, Seira Machida•Languages•2023

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• Emotions in Multiple Languages

  Open Access•Jean-Marc Dewaele, J Dewaele•Emotions in Multiple Languages•2010

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• Teaching Spanish to Hispanic Bilinguals

  Guadalupe Valdes•Hispania•1989

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