Animals and demons

The Testaments of the Twelve Patriarchs, usually included in collections of Old Testament Pseudepigrapha, contains descriptions of nonhuman animals in eight of its twelve testaments. This article is the first to examine these descriptions of nonhumans. In this text virtuous humans are protected from nonhuman animals and this protection is a sign of a person’s virtue. Furthermore, nonhuman animals plot against human ones and attempt to gain mastery over them, using the same terms as would be used for other nonhuman, demonic forces possessing humans. This article suggests that in the Testaments of the Twelve Patriarchs, these types of nonhuman opponents are not neatly distinguished, and that these categories bleed into one another. This suggests that a less strong distinction in the classification and discussion of animals and spirits is beneficial for early Christian texts

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