How Old Is the Hebrew Bible? A Linguistic, Textual, and Historical Study

From the outset of their book, Hendel and Joosten admit that dating is a complicated and multidisciplinary endeavor. Accordingly, results are “not always as precise as one could wish” (p. x). Notwithstanding, it is argued (against the revisionists) that when linguistic methods are joined with other critical methods, valuable results are attainable. The authors substantiate their claim in three different ways.First, they explain what the “historical method” is, followed by an explanation regarding its inability to produce historical insights with certainty (ch. 1). Accordingly, the historical method solely generates proposals with reasonable probability. This is because any historical method must work with the limited amount of information at hand. In effect, “Uncertainty is our condition” (p. 141). To enhance the probability of dating OT texts, a linguistic analysis must, therefore, be included. Second, the authors clarify the relation between “language change” (diachrony) and “language variation” (synchrony). Hendel and Joosten explain that when measuring the distribution of language variation and combining statistical information with information from other areas of historical research (particularly philology and archeology), one can make relative claims about the language age in which a text was written (chs. 2–7). Last, the authors seek to uncover the flaws that come with the classical historical-critical method and the revisionist approach (ch. 8, appendix 2). The authors suggest that one should reject any dating attempts that are solely based “on specific traditions in terms of conceptions, ideas, or theologumena” (p. 99, quoting Erhard Blum, “The Linguistic Dating of Biblical Texts: An Approach with Methodological Limitations,” in The Formation of the Pentateuch: Bridging the Academic Cultures of Europe, Israel, and North America, ed. J. C. Gerts et al. [Tübingen: Mohr Siebeck, 2016], 304). However, one should also reject the revisionist use of statistical arguments that ignore the actual distribution of linguistic variation, while restricting themselves only to the linguistic analysis of the MT.The book consists of 8 chapters, 2 appendixes, a solid bibliography, and 4 indexes (Scripture and other ancient sources, authors, subjects, words and expressions). The first chapter introduces the contemporary discussion about dating biblical texts. With the specific help of Marc Bloch’s framework, Hendel and Joosten stress that the results of biblical research in general and dating texts in particular never achieve objective certainty but only different levels of probability. Accordingly, circular reasoning is present in all theories and interpretations. It is nevertheless argued that “this circle is a virtuous one” (p. 9).The second chapter explains what linguistic change is and how such change is caused. With plenty of modern English and Biblical Hebrew examples, the authors help the reader easily follow their presentation and understand its relevance. The Hebrew examples are carefully chosen from a variety of linguistic aspects: phonology, lexicology, morphosyntax, loanwords, and syntax.The third chapter explores one of the central issues in linguistic dating: how to handle linguistic variation. The authors discuss every potential factor that can cause this phenomenon: dialects, style switching (poetry, register, professional jargon), literary allusions. This leads to the question whether or not all linguistic variations found in the OT can be understood synchronically (Robert Rezetko and Ian Young). While this is a theoretical possibility, Hendel and Joosten argue strongly against such a reduction. Instead, they suggest that several aspects of linguistic variation testify to language development and are, therefore, suitable for (a relative) dating OT texts.In the fourth chapter, Hendel and Joosten look beyond historical linguistics. They show how the work of the literary critic (textual criticism, redaction criticism) can support the suggestions that flow out of linguistic analysis and help to achieve a higher level of interpretive probability. Again, they provide many examples that prevent the chapter from becoming theoretical or abstract. This chapter is also important because it explains that, due to the scarcity of linguistic modernizations (done by ancient editors and scribes) in the biblical text, the diachronic approach is still possible (against the revisionists).In the fifth chapter, the language of inscriptions and preexilic literature is compared to the linguistic data of the Hebrew Bible. Hendel and Joosten continue to argue that only an integrative approach to dating Hebrew text can protect itself from offering “just” logical explanations without historic probability. The comparison of linguistic findings in biblical and nonbiblical Hebrew inscriptions and texts support the claim that the different books in the OT were written at different times and that the diachronic classification of Classical Biblical Hebrew (CBH) and Late Biblical Hebrew (LBH) is still applicable.The authors argue for the continuance of the CBH, Transitional Biblical Hebrew (TBH), and LBH labels in the sixth chapter. There is a discussion of the phenomenon of pseudoclassicism in the seventh chapter. It shows that when late biblical and nonbiblical authors attempt to write in CBH style they are never able to reproduce all of its essential aspects fully.The eighth and final chapter returns to the methodological discussion of dating. Its clear positioning within the contemporary debate of biblical dating and its suggestion in particular of a more reasonable methodological approach—namely, the consilience model—helps this chapter to truly standout. Following Alexander Rofé, Erhard Blum, and particularly William Whewell, Hendel and Joosten call for an integration of tools to improve the probability of dating efforts: “We can accomplish our task ‘not by language alone,’ but by using all the tools of historical-critical research.” (p. 98) While integrating linguistic analysis into dating research, one must furthermore reject the old classical paradigm that dates texts based on their communicated concepts, ideas, and theologoumena. The authors are clear on this point: “We criticize this approach as overly impressionistic and wedded to a ‘pigeon-holing’ model of history.” (p. 99). The consilience model seeks to increase confidence in scholarly interpretation by integrating different research tools (text criticism, redaction criticism, historical linguistics, archeology) and have them “conspire” (pp. 99, 122) to have different dating tracks lead in the same direction. The more “convergence of different bodies of data and inference” (p. 125), the better for achieving a higher level of interpretive probability.The book ends with two appendixes. The first appendix (pp. 127–33) contains a well-annotated bibliography that is organized by differentiating between dating-focused publications on the Torah, Prophets, and Writings. The second appendix (pp. 135–44) critiques the revisionist model suggested by Young and Rezetko.This book is an excellent introduction to the topic of dating OT texts. Hendel and Joosten provide many examples for all their claims. The chapter breakup is logical and didactic. If anything is missing, it is a discussion of tools that can be used to carry out linguistic research. With the many examples provided, the reader is left wanting a chapter in which one can learn how to generate and identify relevant linguistic data. Modern digital tools for linguistic analysis of the Hebrew Bible, Qumran, and other relevant texts could have furthermore been included. SHEBANQ and Text-Fabric, for instance, commend themselves for such work. The latter allows for powerful statistical analysis of the distribution of linguistic phenomena. Its python-based platform has become a standard in the sciences and digital humanities for the calculation of probabilities. And, it is the improvement of interpretive probability for which the authors’ consilience model looks

Certainty · Epistemology · Hebrew · Historical linguistics · Linguistics · Philology · Sociology · Biblical Studies and Interpretation · Computer Science · Historical and Linguistic Studies · History · Linguistics and language evolution · Philosophy