Language in Service of the State

Fresh from the Spanish resistance at Cádiz, Francisco Javier Venegas de Saavedra had arrived in Mexico City in September 1810 just before the outbreak of the Hidalgo rebellion.1 The revolt posed both a challenge and an opportunity to the first viceroy to come from Spain since the beginning of the Napoleonic crisis. He could only suffocate the popular uprising by proving his government’s legitimacy on both the battlefield and the tricky ground of public sentiment. If he could win such a victory for Spain’s faltering authority in New Spain, he might win a new lease for colonial rule under the liberal order being born in the Cádiz Cortes. While zealously pursuing these goals, Venegas created probably the most candid portrait ever of the Spanish Empire’s ties to popular sovereignty in colonial Mexico.A key piece of the portrait w as two broadsides that Venegas had printed up in Nahuatl as Hidalgo’s rebellion swept through the Bajío.2 These were an eloquent précis of what Native American languages had meant to the Spanish seaborne empire. Aimed chiefly at the native communities (or altepetl) in the central heartland south of the revolt, both carried messages from the newly formed Regency Council at Cádiz.3 Both, likewise, tried to use the Nahuatl language to convince the altepetl to support colonial rule. One, larger though less significant, solicited money for the wars against Napoleon in a text dated September 22 but probably printed somewhat later. The other, of October 5, announced the historic abolition of tribute payments in New Spain.These broadsides shine a light on the subterranean linguistic network that connected the colonial state to its conquered subaltern cultures. Desperate measures of desperate times, they have exposed the of the colonial and the native languages on The broadsides a on these languages and Nahuatl in a to the the of legitimacy in These were a from the of in colonial Mexico in the of ties and The Nahuatl broadsides a to the to legitimacy through two of its the colonial on as in the that the and its for order in The the of and the in Spanish of the central of these had in a at the Venegas the Nahuatl broadsides against the Hidalgo they through both and the of these broadsides to the native subaltern and in colonial New Spain and broadsides a in against colonial rule a for a the Hidalgo rebellion the from a of colonial to of a and subaltern in state at the of The of altepetl and both the and in the and subaltern in colonial The broadsides as the of subaltern in state and to language for both and as its of the Hidalgo rebellion both colonial and Mexico and the of and subaltern in the state a in its of the for have the and of and communities such as the of and the and popular and the liberal and to and and liberal for the new and have the the to a new through the communities of to in and in the these were at the of and the an portrait of subaltern in the of what the for in the new and they for the the of communities the of the Spanish colonial state and of its a of and formed The in before the Spanish communities in and the to state in of the such as a and a a and the of of that on two of and an of a but a of a and as in as its in Mexico the from to to the to the on Mexico in its as the that a to the of the the that and the they on only a in these and of the the colonial state and the Nahuatl broadsides light on the that the popular and of the The the of the of state and to his portrait of the of altepetl and the Spanish of and to in colonial a of in New Spain’s the of he a to in an that on the of as its a in a that had of and Spanish against colonial rule had to native to a the before the Hidalgo he the Spanish and had The that of both the and the of the and The native communities that the new to these he but on the of to colonial under and a that had the altepetl to colonial through the of the and The for sovereignty to the and the and and of its and had the altepetl on the and the Spanish order and the of authority as in the for to the of and language to of the altepetl such as and to colonial they had in the of the by and under its resistance in Mexico of and native the of to in colonial and in and against colonial the authority of the a central The of the of to the altepetl up of the and to revolt and the of the an of the historic altepetl and the Spanish The in the the Nahuatl broadsides to in in the of and by the of subaltern as under rule. on the colonial of Mexico a of resistance and altepetl and and its in the of the the central in the of colonial rule in communities and the its to in the and against and a of in and the its and the carried the and from to colonial from a and a the the of in and a and of by de of the and the of had a to the and subaltern he in for the of languages but Spanish in the and Nahuatl of public and The the in Spanish for to for and altepetl to for the of and in central altepetl The on native languages the communities that had a support for and Nahuatl and the of of Nahuatl its only central most the of New Spain’s a in native the in colonial and the to linguistic against to its a that had for as he were a in the that its the its have the and of the to such a that to in the and to the the of the though rule. He the Spanish had but a he as a of to only to Mexico but He that native to and Spanish in order to for of the to and only in the of but in the to and the of the of native languages in order that native the language and and in the light of the to communities to a altepetl and the Spanish that the colonial had the that the and of legitimacy for its of native at the of a of colonial and a for popular of American The language of the that the Nahuatl broadsides a in the of in Mexico Nahuatl as a first and the of had against its had in Nahuatl from the of Nahuatl that had the of the central altepetl had as native in The on the of new and in Nahuatl from New Spain’s and a in altepetl the 1810 of de the against native languages but by the of native the had of to colonial rule in New Spain by at the of its American of a of native a to the of and and an of and The these languages they were at the of the that had of and New cultures. the that had a for colonial rule through such and as and of Spain’s had its in native they most its the of the and had the in colonial that the the central of had Nahuatl in of and authority The of in the these Nahuatl to the colonial in two they the of by colonial through a the of in the a new to altepetl through two of He the for the a but a as communities in the had for of these carried such as the of as to a by the and and the the and of altepetl He colonial for the as the these broadsides an to the of that had these of colonial to the Spain’s language had a of and of by the to had to native by a that its a of Spain by its on the the of new order in the altepetl and Spanish the of its the of on its language Spain carried that authority the New through its linguistic of in new at language to the as the the and the in native the two in such as the that for the native and the that in the altepetl for that the of colonial Mexico native languages in the of the the of Spain in a to its the of the most in the and had the of in a in the of its to by its to the of a new in as two under a to the of and in on the Spain’s in Mexico and the for the Spanish and its from from the by its ties to popular and in the a central state the and through two in the of to these and the that the but these newly were and what and they had under a to both from the native languages of The and a in the of authority by these languages to by of authority in the Spanish on the of in the that the the of as in a to The to in and in a of linguistic that just a language but created a for the in in the Spanish only through languages such as Nahuatl that had in and of colonial as authority had from the of in the and the of by altepetl central Mexico through of its colonial and languages rule on ground against both and the authority of the the altepetl on ground in the Spanish by in the authority of the the for an through the and under the the of authority altepetl and the a of the altepetl a to the in a that of legitimacy to of Spain’s in an of linguistic from linguistic in a linguistic through what the the use of in native communities the of the altepetl and empire. the and both and formed a in that subaltern on colonial two to the and had central in the to to and as the from the the for the of in altepetl the of in colonial of in its eloquent in in the and the to both the of and the colonial to language a of subaltern in and the authority of to for the colonial state to as of and to of that from the to the Spanish the to in of altepetl and to use in the in the Spanish in the the at an and of the de de as a in Mexico its in in a that the and the to to and to to what for the subaltern the of through its to both and the the Hidalgo revolt in subaltern had Spanish legitimacy in New Spain for by of the and had the altepetl and an The altepetl for a of new linguistic as they to colonial these in the colonial through the and the the of the colonial the in through the use of for in such as in in in in such as and These formed the of and under colonial rule the of the and its altepetl The of a colonial rule for the of altepetl and colonial altepetl of a that the of authority in in were and under the and the the the for the colonial rule the and as the of just the altepetl in central Mexico had the in the colonial of as in in in and the new the legitimacy of two at to the of in rule on a such a the and its American they state of a of the of in the the the the created and to and authority in the the as the of the of and of that had native languages the of the empire. The colonial state from these a through such as the and to the altepetl the While by of the native the colonial state had and of the the of the had through the of colonial that the Spanish to the of the altepetl a had and to a The of the to the of a Nahuatl by against the of such as the of on the altepetl an that had in the first of the in through a of native and the languages in a that on and a for a colonial revolt only two Venegas his in Mexico City as New Spain’s He had come to the legitimacy that the had in the against viceroy he a rebellion that colonial rule to its an uprising that in on September the revolt of and to of up to and Venegas he could to in the and in against he the challenge a that the and on the the through the and Mexico he up a to and the the first the to popular in New Spain through and its liberal the subaltern of the legitimacy in New the of the and broadsides of the under the of two a from October to of these were in the first of the revolt, and the of in 1810 in of the Venegas had and the he to against the of the Spanish to in the of most Nahuatl from to colonial Nahuatl broadsides were by the most piece of but of the from the they both a new of public and a new of to the native the on by public of as a from the viceroy in a native for the first ever they and conquered on linguistic of the of from the of only these broadsides the of of the government’s the to and The of the on a linguistic by a of from the to have the liberal of the Regency Council and the in most of the Cádiz Venegas to of and to support for the Spanish resistance in through public the had for the of Nahuatl to public a by in Mexico and in 1810 had his de under as the first Nahuatl in the the first new in Nahuatl since and the in its his to the the of his he could he but to that language in and in the of He against the by colonial the of and the and he and had the of the for but the in Mexico were to the in they of from and a he and a of had to the a of the by a at the of he that the had to of the as in the of by the of a he have to in these languages he have in the of Nahuatl and at the de he to the that of and of the of the that the the they and and but that languages less that these of of in a to challenge in but he from in his of native from Mexico he had as from the de de in and as in and before to the of Nahuatl in the de he the to his and connected to a of in Mexico City in Nahuatl had of native languages a of these historic and the and had to two of and to the the to language a of American in these in his first in New to New he had the of the rebellion in the of Spain’s American empire. at on he colonial before in Mexico his in he have from the of Nahuatl to order and the its the Regency Council in Cádiz had of the and had in its the of an for the abolition of tribute in New the rebellion from Mexico Venegas these to his in order to a on the tribute the of a popular to Nahuatl up from the of the colonial order as the first of liberal to dated two the for to the Napoleonic the the to tribute the for Nahuatl a of in the of The Regency Council had the in as the of its to a rebellion to in New since the had in September of a had the The for the Spanish Napoleon that a might a uprising the that in in in the that on the most and for and tribute the had to popular support for an abolition of as as of Cádiz, the newly formed Regency Council to such an by its to in the of an The the could just a to popular but to a from to the of legitimacy in New Spain in support of liberal the order through in the liberal to in Spain and its to its for from and the most and announced its to the of the for against The two were the tribute abolition but a of the that and the The Regency the to the and for as as for just they have in the at The a for popular support through the tribute payments that had in the since the altepetl and in the that and and that for the and of the Venegas a of in he that he had printed in Nahuatl to its by The of Nahuatl against the Regency that were but the of a to popular from the and of the the to key of colonial to on of rule. in to and altepetl to the but a of authority through the of a the language and Venegas to his Nahuatl but his a liberal to popular legitimacy through the Nahuatl language in the of of de had to win but to the up by to native the and the native to in New Spain’s to the government’s legitimacy and the of the by the and by and of being in the altepetl of central Mexico just the tribute but the colonial government’s The of of these as de of the and the native being and that of and on to use the larger that tribute abolition but the of a colonial a legitimacy formed through the to that the of native as as by and The linguistic native to through native languages and of the a linguistic to the native the as his and of his October 5, Venegas the abolition of in a that to of these the the to in its he its and its but these the as by the Regency The most of these the of the abolition to the of the in the Venegas to the the only to in and in that the were to the of and to for the to in the languages of the These in a that Venegas in the printed Nahuatl Nahuatl de a language to an of popular legitimacy for a new of liberal that only the state a the subaltern but that the Venegas to the as had but to the Nahuatl in broadsides printed in a of only a authority in public of could Nahuatl were in The Nahuatl to in though to the and its to on the government’s the dated October 5, the printed Spanish the Nahuatl October Venegas to under a printed the in the of the printed He the of the of and in the of of the in the of to the in the for to and in the of an of that Venegas the broadsides to the that these were a to native The Nahuatl Nahuatl the as an of the Spanish American the to that in both and to for a from the the printed a the Nahuatl in the that had altepetl to Venegas probably the October he his to the the of he that and in the of and the of the to the and the of the for the of opportunity and of what the the Nahuatl text of a by and for the and the of of of Spanish American and the that the to for the He in probably and and the of and his both Nahuatl broadsides his While meant the he the Spanish as he liberal altepetl he created a of the the colonial state had through for of its text in in de de in in in in in in in in in of the Nahuatl text that of the and that the of tribute that had by of the colonial and the tribute money that the and in the of tribute a on these the for the of the for and and that and the Regency that of the the support they from in the of and and as the of the viceroy that the from the He that and as that for the of of the and of the first tribute such that order that and that order by in Mexico and altepetl of in and languages and in in printed to and to for its that in the for the liberal by the Regency as a of just authority and that from The Spanish text the Regency Council of these just of to the to and the that and for they the and in of the to these new in his to a of the he the and to the liberal state through altepetl the Nahuatl text that the the Regency the the of and a in order to on of the in the a of authority to in the of the in that have in his the and of the a and If his a of that the liberal from the Regency its from New Spain that the new to legitimacy by its to altepetl a a of the in and that had Spain’s rule the of a from the but in a of the they had the to order by of the of of a of what altepetl had to and chiefly and the of popular sovereignty to the text the in for the liberal of the Regency The Nahuatl the and by a the authority of the in a of the of and what on the of a such as in in and of in the through a the of the of for to the in for and of the for in and the to the in such as the have of that the to the the and the in a the of the in a its He the of by its the of and the of its the use of the most Nahuatl a in and of altepetl probably from the and These the to the a of and that a of to to a of and a a meant in as a a meant for in The of that could such as of and to altepetl and were and from they were and to both at both to and to and the of to to for but to a the of the of the a for a of to the of for and in the of to a for an and both and have as had a in a of that the a of by a but a of at the of its most a and for and at to a for might only for in a a from a of the of and in the could for that they by as could a of the to The of could and in the of a in of these to the and and for to in for and the the Spanish and the of New Spain and by and the Spanish the the of in the of in the that Nahuatl language and a of legitimacy in the key and a and the and that the authority the in and in the authority of the and the the of and of and have to these to a authority and of and as in the the a of two to in to and by The that these were and The and authority that the altepetl from the of in being as from the of that being The and in an of such that the authority to an a by a of that to and the in the Nahuatl the authority in these and the and to the of the order of the altepetl on these of the and in colonial the to the that they as de his in to de in the the to from and from de in de and the of but in the of altepetl these for the liberal in at a of colonial rule and connected to the new He to its the Cádiz the the the at the of the for the of the and of the first to the of the had for and the and in tribute of October the most in the of Nahuatl the Hidalgo the in the government’s The larger and dated September 22 to in the to popular and the to probably in Nahuatl the of the tribute though from first on September the of the tribute of legitimacy and could by The of September the most in Mexico since and were the de and Francisco Javier de the of the to the from the de of the and and in the the Venegas the to by the Regency Council on 5, Spain’s to the the of against and The such a and as he to and in the for to the and such as de and were the an of the the Regency Council had the of the against September Venegas a of the and an order to a the Regency as a first in Spanish and in to the Nahuatl a and two on by and to in Venegas his that were of the of these the that the that they by the of and to to for such a and just the tribute Nahuatl from its Spanish the in the of in New Spain by its of the of and he the of the Spanish the of the and the for in the in the of a in a that had the of altepetl and in colonial in the text of the of de to to the native the Nahuatl text the on New Spain’s as an of money for the for Spain’s wars and a the Spanish the its that the for the against Napoleon have to in New Spain’s The Nahuatl that the that and for just only the that were the in to The Spanish text that de in for in the Nahuatl a of money The Nahuatl text and by the and the the to to a to the solicited only in an of such as the tribute Spain in in the money and in for and The of communities to the Spanish to the of money for The the money for Spain’s wars New Spain’s The to Nahuatl the money the for the of the and the for money to Spain the have of its Spain and money and on the of the The Nahuatl text Spain’s to the that Spain have of its to of the and of the up an and the altepetl of central Mexico to support the a formed the of the Spanish Spain and were in the Nahuatl The for the of Spain’s While on in the the that the the Nahuatl text only as as the and the of such as to the a of in the wars in Nahuatl text from the Spanish in its from from the Spanish the of the and that such as at the his Venegas had the of he to the of the that in these for the of and that in these in his the to Spain’s of from the Nahuatl text a the of colonial legitimacy and that to by the in the that had the altepetl colonial to a they the of to the his the had a and the colonial of the of colonial rule two the Nahuatl to a colonial legitimacy in the of colonial to have the the Nahuatl broadsides both the of Nahuatl and as an of colonial rule. by the for colonial rule in the but in the and the broadsides an of that the of the the Nahuatl to the of the the and only the colonial rule. The broadsides the and the of the Spanish resistance in to the but the and only in from the for the a text that in Spanish the the from such a the that the the of the and as to and to the and the that he to to as American the that of the of the from and to the he have by and that in for and by that the New Spain’s to from the rebellion in the in October and his the Nahuatl Spanish authority as a in New Spain as they the for altepetl the to in New Spain its native of and as a to the by under his The Nahuatl Spain’s through an of the linguistic to Spain’s colonial a and and the new the The Nahuatl broadsides the and in the authority that state they popular the of they the his and that his in the they a the authority in a on native desperate the of in Mexico and its to that a text that the Hidalgo that in the and the Nahuatl language had to the in the New had its the altepetl and its against the of to the only broadsides a in for the colonial state had its legitimacy through native to the of the de and for his in to in his and for the and from the and at in the of a of and

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