Facundo and Chacho in Songs and Stories

“There must be some truly great quality in the character of that old gaucho,” Domingo F. Sarmiento admitted in his ambiguous reflections on Chacho Peñaloza, a caudillo whose assassination he allegedly ordered.1 Sarmiento’s commentary in 1866 suggested that there was something unique and mysterious about caudillos because of their sentimental appeal and ability to mobilize gauchos through a personalistic rapport;2 in fact, the unique personality traits of these rural leaders was an essential component of the first explanation of Latin American caudillismo proposed by Sarmiento himself in his book, Facundo, and documents and contemporary accounts are replete with references to this phenomenon.3 Yet this question has been largely neglected by modern historiography, which preferred to focus on the broad social, economic, and cultural factors that created the conditions for the emergence and development of this type of political leadership, authority, and mass mobilization in post-independence Latin America.4This article reexamines the nature of the appeal of caudillos by focusing on Facundo Quiroga and Chacho Peñaloza, two Federalist caudillos from the northwestern province of La Rioja.5 The study of these legendary leaders is significant for, at least, two reasons: first, they played an important role in the foundation of Argentine and Latin American literature, thanks to Sarmiento’s writings and obsession with Riojan caudillos; second, these caudillos were among the most powerful leaders in the Argentine interior, with a capacity to shape national politics. Scholars’ reluctance to consider this aspect of caudillista leadership could be attributed to common understandings of the phenomenon of personal magnetism, which social scientists often refer to as charisma. In its most common use, the concept of charisma carries a sense of emotional involvement and manipulation and is often associated with irrationality and political incapacity on the part of the followers. The phenomenon of charisma has, in fact, been considered to be exceptional and idiosyncratic to allow valid generalizations. Given the explanatory limitations of this concept, historians merely acknowledged that the phenomenon was at work, but failed to systematically explore its workings.6Some social scientists have, however, called into question the idea that charisma irradiates from the persona of the leader; in fact, it should be viewed as a reciprocal relationship between leaders and followers. “One has charisma,” James C. Scott says, “to the extent that others confer it upon one; in other words, it is the attribution of charisma that establishes the relationship.”7 By this definition, followers are a fundamental part of the equation mainly because it is their “cultural and social expectations that exercise a controlling or, at least, limiting influence over the would-be charismatic figure.”8 In a creative study of the Saravia brothers—strongmen of the Uruguayan-Brazilian borderlands—John Charles Chasteen has recently proposed a revision of caudillista leadership and charisma along these lines. According to Chasteen, charismatic leadership must be analyzed less in terms of leaders’ personal qualities than as a relationship between leaders and followers: “The charisma of the Saravia brothers was in the eyes of the beholders who projected their own values onto the strongman.”9If charisma is conferred upon and if charisma lies in the eyes of the beholder, then the historian should try to reconstruct the beholder’s gaze. In other words, the charismatic appeal of the caudillos should be explained in terms of the followers’ and of their is that the charisma of the caudillos from their followers’ and it is to sense of its by focusing on their of the to the and expectations of the followers. According to charisma is is charismatic for an is for in in relationship between leadership and cultural has been by who that an of charismatic a study of the and of that In his study of a in the political was and as as and was these that gauchos caudillos to be than of caudillos upon a of significant cultural and political in post-independence rural and were by of authority, as as of and Federalist in the of in the of for some idea and with they a study of charismatic as about the leaders as about the of their followers. The cultural of the phenomenon has been by Chasteen caudillos as it was the role of values in the of the charismatic appeal that in the emotional between the caudillos and the it was a relationship on to and and of their study of the of caudillos the role of in the of the In the the Argentine was and largely and of caudillos mainly in the of and caudillos as but most of the about the of and was part of a whose the the from in with and their in the a political of national in the of the In and the on the caudillos played a fundamental role in the of the study of the of the caudillos and of the of to question about the role of in the of in Latin of this article is to a with the on caudillismo and in the focus from the persona of the caudillo to the study of cultural and and the of in caudillista and most on the of in the and province of are the on the of and in the writings of the and the of the as as in the and by the that an important that the of the and the by as the most of and as the of the In this study of the of caudillista leadership to some of in La a the this article and political to the the of caudillos and in La the other of the writings of the that on their were by the this study of the in the historian to the of the that the of the an and influence on the of the caudillos and in La The of caudillos were by that and about of that and that were to study the of of by in the In the by which is in and unique in Latin and to the of the in the which has been by is of of and from of the The was in from a of were at old and in rural by of their and they to the and some of been of the of and the and in a unique to study and of The of that be in the of this the an important in the of the of the interior, and of the in the of the in the among of by in a political some of on the political of In the of the caudillos from La were to Facundo and to The of the the extent of their that as their the for in the province of La but in and The of that a of the caudillos as about Facundo and about Chacho were in the of La and from some of the the of the and in Argentine politics. In an that Chacho the the gauchos were the and of in the of the the of the that his in the province of in the Facundo on the that in the of and and the that they among the rural of were of the to the as was a political a the between and was was as a in this and and Federalist leaders of the a from of his to was of the Federalist caudillo in the of the of In was by the from a called a by to the of the an that the of Chacho in a the and that the and to he to but he it was he to its to been by of in about the between the two that of were if consider the of the leaders of in the of is leaders of were in a Federalist caudillos the for Federalist caudillos as Facundo, Chacho and were often than leaders as the La and Domingo F. these the for consider as a of the of in the and the of this among the the of is suggested by the of some Federalist caudillos with the of In two of a that and of the caudillos two which and in of the and the Federalist leaders with their in the of the and to this The of a and of the a to the in which the in the political and it was and and between the of social and into political and his were to from an from the of the of in of they the the and other the were there who were they the of the the were in the The however, of the and it in the of and as the in his the and the caudillo from this that the from in the was in the of the province in The of the are from the the of but of were the the they were Federalist and which that the and the Federalist from the the but with a the to that it was the who of a Federalist and its were the of a with politics. the called the and the to the and gauchos in the province of at least, is to the of the who the and it is to the of his on the other of his are to of his was a of who part of the and political of the and whose common was to be to in of who were on the was the the of the other from the the of In and and as of most and whose at the of of the from the caudillo with the and that the the of of the of as the for his was aspect of was of the most to be by in the of the the been from that because of their and The gauchos that the an to but to that in his it was who was associated with the these by the between and was a by and the of this in the of was to the of the to the who about the of The the of two Federalist Facundo who been and who in was in of the province of the whose Quiroga and the of the from that Facundo as most of Quiroga and were that the to the of the two of the of a been to an of the caudillos that from that among the however, on this as the a a a Quiroga for the gauchos associated Facundo with the the about caudillos was in which and political to in the political the from suggested other of this type of political the in the of in the province of as the among the the upon the of a national and the Argentine this in the of the province of the and the gauchos the caudillos who the of and as as the caudillo who La for these caudillos their common of and a political that was part of the between and The with in that whose and the that the La The of by and a common political in which the a common political that was of the the the of it is to this as as in that Facundo Quiroga as an to the of the Riojan and the to to on the of Riojan of the political and in of the was a sense of between of these two idea that the between and was a of other as played a role in the and of that political The of that most were and was by two first, and was an essential part of that and second, in the of the the political that a of the national political from the of a social but from the that gauchos and this was through In other words, the of a national political was by and political the of of the of and of as and and it in the of and among the from were about political but the in the and were by In from and caudillos for but it is to the with political the of caudillos in these is their political are and a and for their of and in the his of the assassination of he by a for the of the explanation of the assassination of the and often and from the of the Argentine and from other as were from a and were to for and explanation that political The political of a caudillo however, to the and of the of and to the political of a his in and of his personality to to some the and of the and the of that between the political and and the values in the some of whose and into the of of and and the of their by Facundo and two Federalist was a reciprocal on the it the and of the a political on the other this of the of the caudillos in with and values this and their the the in the but the of the with the and their to In this the caudillos and their the and in through which reconstruct the of the caudillos in the of the the of the at least, in a significant their they been a from a of in the of the The of should with the of other of and are with and by and that allow to the and associated with the caudillos and to a between and for in is to some of the in and to they were in the political between the and the to the The political and by in In some in and that with the and of the the political in the as by which to the and that the and as of the and the they the that the and the to the the of the who an about of was must been in and the and of a of the a that Facundo who was in of who was old in explained that he about the and of from his the and because at that was from in of La who was old in his about the assassination of Chacho by was a of was the relationship between and the it be that some of the in were of and that in The on these in from and the from own to two the the and the of the of Facundo in and the the and some of which were in the other the and about the of Chacho it was for the to and to in the The of Chacho in and it the of and the it a in the of and his the of are with the of literature, it is that they and the of the and on the of Chacho that the assassination of the caudillo in In of the of Chacho by that the of the the of were as the most powerful in The their as political leaders but the caudillos as and role in the they In the of this the of from and caudillos with qualities and to that attributed to in other The with the of in from the of upon which the of the caudillos were but it is that they were of of and which a and a to and the that of that should Facundo, his by in in La to the of who he was from the attributed to a capacity to were if in the of La in a of to the of The to a which the caudillo they that among was in a with the by a The in a in a to the the to an it was other than in the called his and the that the was the of the he was to be the that as in to of to a the that the of La Quiroga some in La the that they been in his The the was of the of and the that he over the of La was of the qualities of the which an of his this capacity “to the of been a quality attributed to Federalist caudillos that a of about and that of to his he himself as a of and about the by in the he the of the in their in the of rural La was part of the of in in between gauchos and the caudillos proposed but on other they the and were some of the of the caudillos and to gauchos that in was as who his exceptional to and to the caudillo a of because he was for the and of the The extent of his and the nature of this were in the of caudillos and Chacho himself on the of his and as caudillo through the political that he with the gauchos the Chacho into the as a of his leadership was part of his relationship with the been of a to than a that he been of the the of the gauchos his own and a himself for the nature of the and the that caudillos and references to the caudillos as were in an Facundo as and it was of from that was by his he was the of province and his was by his who and the it were to in than gauchos were in a in of to the and the of and for if they in of the caudillo as a and as which are in a Facundo as a of that the caudillo was through a in the he to and in the for a the the to the who was to be who was in the and is the this According to his to the and from the and to the to and was the caudillo who who the of and the of the to their in this the was and that the into an on the was Facundo, of who and was of in that The caudillo was for the of to that to which the caudillo to a the of in the writings of in the in the Riojan caudillos were the of caudillo authority, this a from the of the of caudillos been on an that and that in was to to the it is that these of caudillos were to of which a and a to in Riojan caudillos the of than as Facundo and Chacho that these Federalist caudillos and the of the he who to his in was a for from a In of the in the of Facundo, a who Quiroga to a in and he was by was by Facundo with and in the of this it the to and from the of that was part and of and the to the caudillo was than with a of that the of to their own of gauchos in about Chacho as for his the that a in a the but as the of the a and in the of the the a social In a from about the of Peñaloza, an to Chacho about the to from to were and by he been in these in the of the the of that has if it is an the that the is a called his are the the who the that on the in the of the of is in the of political the the caudillo a a by the of the to the social and be in La the was to be and of Facundo in the of the Federalist at the In the political of La and were often to as and the of The the in most of the to the of were but most of were of as and and their By the this of the of the of the in as the of the of the Federalist of the and of the between and to the a than a the of the of the of the Federalist gauchos was “to the that in with Facundo as a to the relationship between and was in the of the in the on the role of the of the caudillo in the of According to the Facundo who was and the in of of but of the of the called and to some about the the and as it a of he to with his to the of the and if it was that to his to which the and that the was a of his and the in the of a of and to to the of this which has that its in and among the Facundo and an between and was in La but considered by the In a by the of the province that is the with among its and it is unique to two that are at two which was to the that in most between is a in the the Federalist caudillo a of in the and a fundamental for the of and in a it was an with that but the of the the of of the that to their of the the character of the with his and their into political from the of of the the of the of on some of the that and the of could in a the there was a to the that who could be to by who on the the of the Federalist caudillo the and to the of a which was acknowledged in and In Sarmiento the of he from the of his because in a who was that to the of in suggested that must in with a of his if he in with a and the to been by the of Facundo in his into in the and that considered for he a as a and the in Facundo with a by his the and of the were a to to was part of an among other Federalist who that the social others of the of the followers in post-independence to two of his as and and to through the of played a role in the of the that in some of the of In the of in La the between and of were of and was by over and the of on the from the province of and with politics. In the of as in other by gauchos from of their The that in was called and it was as a a who with this of the gauchos a with which to and the was as who this the of to a Federalist the is as is gauchos with their they and on is in this that should a in a in the of that has Facundo Quiroga as of the In the to Quiroga a of a in a the was the a a as with and it to his of the he to that the was in the for his as if it were a a The a that Facundo as of the is a on the of a that their on the and as a The the to on a been the of a to the of the with the and to the of the the and the by the role Facundo in the In this Facundo is the the of the as is the of the in this type of the the Federalist caudillo the because was in the of is a in the of the that Facundo as a In is in an the and of the Quiroga an of it is that this type of Facundo a who a of the caudillo that was to with his of personal role in the the in the of of a Federalist in it La as in an important Yet their were The of the as the of the in the an in which the gauchos and their social the a and was its the Facundo in the of the was an some but and and was an that acknowledged the nature of the a that of its most the of and from of the of Federalist the caudillos and they were the leaders in a that in La gauchos the gauchos the assassination of Facundo in in of were by in La in the were to an in in and to a than that the in and was in a as to some of the that the associated with the suggested that the was part of a and this explanation to that he was truly an exceptional In of the Facundo was of the the a to for Facundo himself was about to that they his in which the to the and the in which they the and the on the personality of the Facundo was a of his was a whose was of exceptional was the of the of and he and Facundo in the the of by Facundo and his old his at the of was about to this with to of the of the with a of his the The his his the in the that he was an for his of the the a to the were that the of at his his on as his with his own The whose was to these was of exceptional and the of the he suggested the of his and of from the to with could be the of the The on the other is as a for a that he to his and the is the that a Facundo to was the of political in the a he the to the could that Facundo but as the the in to over but the by the assassination of the is of the between and the The has as The of Facundo as a the of and its leaders as of the the of and his for values and associated the with of In other words, the between Facundo and was a between the and the but between the of and of Facundo and in of with the of in the writings of and in in it the of the in and this these were to and The of Facundo as a in the to at and Facundo its to the of In the was to but in the of the interior, to most was the of and as an component of the of the the of the and the was a in and by a of and qualities part of the of Facundo and the Riojan caudillos from about The as of were and called the of this In the of the about his they in for in but in and in in of and In a from but of has that Quiroga is in in and in a in is that he has in a he has and The on assassination this the caudillo was about the to thanks the and the question but he the who Quiroga has been suggested that and legendary were of According to of the the of in the of could upon the of the be in of to at because it a at and of the and from at of the of that was because he upon the qualities about the of their his at but because Quiroga was a it could be a could the of this and The that the between the and the on the could because he was a by the then Facundo a and that of the of Facundo and Chacho suggested something of the between the two of the a that in the of in which the as a of In this Chacho in the the with a that his the was and Quiroga was he it was a the was and its the of the a this as caudillo in two and were and it that the of his political been by Facundo, and a of his this article the of the of and in in with other of it to reconstruct the of the Riojan caudillos and the question of caudillista charismatic The study of the that the that the caudillos over the gauchos less to with the leaders’ exceptional personal qualities than with the projected expectations of their followers. The charismatic appeal of the caudillos was a of their and it was most the caudillos and of and and as as some In the caudillos Facundo was the first caudillo of post-independence La his a in to other was as an and and an of and of in the writings of in the in were by the his was on this article the role that played in the of the a was to the of and The of Facundo a unique to the of the caudillo the of the in and In and on of his the of a national political in the of the the other some of and were and by Sarmiento to his Facundo in which he the of the and a of the Sarmiento’s the into and it to a that modern in which the gauchos that the of Facundo the in and and in the of the from the in the and the in the and the of a of which this article is a from and a from to and to the in this of this were at and at the in as this and to C. Chasteen, James C. and the of the for their and

Appeal · Art · Federalist · Historiography · Independence (probability theory) · Latin Americans · Literature · Political science · Politics · Sociology · Argentine historical studies · Gender Studies · Historical Studies in Latin America · History · Indigenous Cultures and History · Law

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