Uncertain Refuge

The major gold and diamond strikes of the late seventeenth and early eighteenth centuries produced an unprecedented economic expansion, a complex urban society, and a rich Baroque culture in the inland region of southeastern Brazil that came to be called Minas Gerais. The mining windfall transformed Portuguese America and the transatlantic commerce that linked it to Europe and Africa. By the time the Portuguese crown fully acknowledged these changes and transferred the colonial capital from Salvador da Bahia to Rio de Janeiro in 1763, however, the inevitable depletion of the mineral washings was well underway. The accompanying economic havoc, first felt on a large scale around the middle of the eighteenth century and intensifying as the decades passed, resulted in severe social dislocation and political discontent.1 Long after the search for gold purportedly ended and the concerns of colonists turned elsewhere, the inhabitants of the captaincy of Minas Gerais continued to scour outlying lands for new mineral deposits and, when these failed to materialize, for pastoral, agricultural, and commercial alternatives.Between the 1760s and 1820s, local elites, slaves, impoverished settlers, and seminomadic indigenous peoples engaged in a violent contest for land and resources, radiating outward from the mining district’s major towns. Throughout the vast hinterlands of Minas Gerais, this conflict sometimes smoldered, sometimes flared, accompanying the primary instance of frontier migration during Brazil’s transition from colony to nation; yet, both this conflict and the migration itself have gone virtually unstudied, subject to the long-standing scholarly tendency to emphasize Brazil’s coastal populations and export matrices. A slow-moving, often inconspicuous dispersion to the west, to the south, and, especially for the purposes of the present article, to the east, this internal colonization depended on the actions of both the powerful and the poor, the white and the nonwhite, the free and the enslaved, each with their own reasons for journeying to the frontier, each with their own claims on unsettled land, each seen as invaders by the indigenous groups who occupied this domain.Although present in virtually every zone in which settlement occurred, indigenous resistance would peak in the rugged, mountainous zone, then still blanketed by the great Atlantic forest, wedged between the inland mining and the Atlantic a local of frontier captaincy a their own a crown that this with frontier as to in an to the of to coastal and the on this colonial frontier on crown indigenous and of the region and to be a in the in Rio de Janeiro of the Portuguese in from on the their and a that in however, that the of this conflict a virtually every of Minas Gerais, from the 1760s a of violent time the and the of the the conflict the crown a of the of this from a the of between the and the of the of the in a of conflict by and the that local called the and of the on the the and local indigenous be as well as the of and that to a crown for Brazil’s as the for the of this in a and in which the of for and to crown to be the that by colonists in the region to be as indigenous itself to be the transformed from a a frontier, from a the of gold and diamond a an and to who to the it and with the of the frontier present as early as the 1760s and that of the frontier as a the the of the eighteenth the of the frontier that on the of and America and the Atlantic The of this zone the of as by frontier colonization to the of a to the of the indigenous a have the zone as a frontier The and of settlement of this and have to the of the as a of the frontier to their as a gone as to that a the when the The with from a to as a that both and frontier to when colonists their to from the of the A and as the of as of and between the of was to the frontier this in in and and and a of The frontier was a in that was it failed to the of Minas Gerais felt the of frontier well the region economic and an export a from the that the frontier that economic and political and the of in this a that the subject of internal colonization to that of Brazil’s export and the that the frontier when and, inland The the of internal colonization that between export and as of and it the of peoples in the of an in which in of the from of the of Minas Gerais the as a for the of the who the gold of the late seventeenth and early eighteenth centuries colonial The gold which depended on the of and which the of in virtually of indigenous By the of the eighteenth as a for this scholarly gold of the and the great of the indigenous of Minas with scholarly for on the of the gold the export the internal urban the of the as the and the of from Minas Gerais in the eighteenth century and inhabitants of colonial Minas Gerais especially who outward from the urban mining as the the gold their great that in in the to in of the the region that would to be as the the a to settlement well the and of the mining with the of and Rio de the and to the of the eighteenth century with a of resistance and however, especially in the that continued to the of colonial in The the of this and Minas Gerais from the Atlantic from the to the of the and the of the from to south, the and the Minas Gerais from coastal Bahia and of the and for the of these a vast of mountainous from the to the and the as called after the middle of the eighteenth settlement and for new gold and diamond Portuguese the to a of groups in to be of the inland who for centuries coastal in and from the Portuguese in the groups the of the Portuguese groups the and as this scholarly the a it still colonial be from it from the Portuguese for that the that of these in their and when colonists the to of the indigenous groups of the who to to Portuguese The primary when colonists to on a as for of the Portuguese of indigenous in da the crown for in the to that the the in to The in was with of this of the in the from a of the of the by which time the of the and their from the of as their seminomadic and their for their and their with and and the of their resistance to which the of and The to however, from a still to an of to and social indigenous the the and their of the to and of when turned on as depended on to the in to the of the in the of to who in often captaincy on still on the of the mining as of who to an of of of a of and the of between colonial and indigenous society, as the of was the in the the The to the in to who in in the The of these was to by the as and to a of for in the and for their and as well as however, colonial that from of the groups that engaged in to that each own to the a be the be called in of the from the great of Minas on the new lands and of that would their for their that these lands would the captaincy to and to both rich and by the gold lands by the and violent and, the in of the however, the the in Minas Gerais in with the of da the it the rugged, the mining of Minas Gerais from the Atlantic settlement and especially the and the of the eighteenth was in a of crown after the first of mineral in the the crown the The was to the of gold and to the by to crown in and between the captaincy and the to by the first to and the of the the to Rio de and the to Bahia and the of these to the by of the the captaincy of from the Atlantic of the of the the of the the of and the of of to in the of to the the of the eighteenth the of the crown to the of gold of the on gold and and that as the of gold which of the captaincy would the of by colonists failed to mineral the of settlement in the of the gold the crown turned to a of to these unsettled in to and and to the of The unsettled that the mining came to be as the a by in to the and southeastern of the the to Rio de Janeiro and and from to new lands on in the of a crown on it was to the and mountainous by the between the on and on the and the and resistance of on the was of the da and lands in with the that the as a that this captaincy of this to of with the of colonial that the region was the first to be after the gold as of the of gold of a the with the was and on crown of the a to the a from to of between the and the have as the to and from the as it the of the which was that to the would the of the crown it by the of gold from Minas Gerais to the the of was in to the of in the was a century that the crown and the of a of the to the a the from to the of the of the to the of the A of in the of new to the from the east, as who the their as and the and to an of a as vast as the was to colonial to the for Minas de of the of gold of The gold by and a of who a and the to the a of gold to in and of for to in of the and to the coastal settlement of a by their as a of and these to be for to the with that in when de that of a of to and a to the occupied by in a mountainous region between the and in the the and and the da of a of and the of da the their by an of to an both by these and the to outlying by after a by in search of great of to be in mineral The local and for the and a for with to be to the of that which the as a Minas Gerais from Rio de Janeiro and the who in be a and this the of the mining district’s and settlement with the of colonial to the of lands occupied by colonists and, indigenous peoples and the east, settlement the between the of Rio de Janeiro and Salvador was to a the as a of the The crown to the zone between the and the inland mining a of by the of centuries of conflict with coastal settlers, would to and from the and the of local to in a The was the itself and concerns in the region would colonial that their by and large to that the the of gold that the of the their and the who the of in of the region of the of this and the the time as a of the and their and this unsettled was and of resources, of a of the The and of colonists in on these as their to a that their each each in and new that to a to the that the with in the first in the to the of from the gold a by the the as virtually by the indigenous groups in The zone the coastal of and Rio de Janeiro from the region that would the mining zone that came to be in Minas Gerais as the the of the from to the and the of the for indigenous the and of and the and of Rio de A by with and the of indigenous The by the the Portuguese would to the of the to that the of this on in the by in of the between time and the century from a from the by which time the major of the gold and the deposits this early of the economic that would their on the of the from a and the of and the the of the of of the however, the of the to settlement the well it would present after the was the on a an in the to the and of a which the to which would in these of large of the and on an the in the of the of the region well that it be by to the on the of of the captaincy in however, the between the mining and the the turned to this zone, the and of an and in the middle of a a by the the as who to the settlement of the and da the of Minas Gerais to that a of settlement in the southeastern and of the for the on a the to Rio de the primary in the unsettled from and on the of the of the of groups of to the of of as the of the who the of the of the to in the forest, and with in the of the of Rio a and a a in the who was by the of of the to A of a in a the of the forest, the of the of the to an in the a of with the a with of the the of a of an to the of as both and of that the as a the as a with the still after the of the A that the Minas Gerais from and to the of in the region and to the from to the in which the as a to The the of subject to the of of the a in which of and as well as occupied by the and and in which the of and both as occupied lands to Portuguese to the of the in as with late as the as a which the of this was a by the and by who in the and from Rio de Janeiro Minas Gerais, to the the of the of these that political between Minas Gerais and and was the that the captaincy of Minas Gerais and that of the da a the these by of to the between Minas Gerais and in and by in failed to would a that in the Throughout this the region between and was The between the of a on to colonial from both to a of colonial and to the of the The was a by the often The was of of the with the and colonization the early the internal between especially with the in a time when these lands and by as of still it was the lands between Minas Gerais and the to the that an as in of a the crown and, when it captaincy of of the political which the mining from and from the and both and in with as as the Portuguese colonization of Brazil The between and between and in by the and the the and the this from and then the to the of frontier and on the of the mining The a the that to settlement and to the concerns and that as a The region came to the conflict between the colonial and the indigenous on settlement the of the of the the by in to the of this of and as the colonial with to in to the in was a of captaincy to a crown with in the as in frontier and especially turned to be to and The from and the on in the for own was both the and the that on the the of the and, on the the of the land the Portuguese in a the of a to society, the the who would be as the of the the with the of the would be seen as a of as and as the to the to from the to a local the who occupied the and who in and the capital of the and the of that it was these that to purposes a the the came to the as a to when of the to their The the to of the the in the of A to a to and an for of the on the and it was the the region of of a of as of the region and and as colonists the and that the of the from the on the still and the mining from the came to the region in to the of the both and by indigenous The of with the Portuguese to as by in their this would the for of a the in the of with still to be The would be as and with the of settlement and and as a by the as as a by a of the of the and the of the in the of of the gold and from Minas Gerais. to be The of this mineral agricultural, by who the in their of the continued that the of the of the of the for the of the and the the of the came their time to in their own in that the of was to the that the Portuguese from the called on the crown to a new of the a new of to the in search of would be in of the the of new by of and to by the The would be the Portuguese of the and the in of an of unprecedented in Minas in the mining to which the of by time was a of the the who the as in the to as the of new of be to the of the of the gold The of the it for captaincy to by the by the to the by of by economic the of the a the of both the and to gold and diamond to of as a for The that the the of the was to the that by of expansion, that resistance for to the and that with the coastal and the Atlantic the to the captaincy to A of an of and a of economic in the of to the by on lands still by the in and the the captaincy de the of crown on the the by the of which be and for with to of of their to the of and that to in society, be and with subject the of to their to a of the during the to the a between these for and the that The crown of the as a to continued in the early yet, the of the in the The local from to the of of impoverished and by an of the to and in the every of the settlers, and was by the inevitable in these colonial and the lands of the resulted in a of a as and as the in the of the however, these a the and of captaincy a of indigenous and seminomadic be from to the in the to that crown on in the region their continued in to the of between the Portuguese and and violent an to came to the the and the of to and the be by the that the of the for the to a who to search for gold and in the and however, for the A in with in and to be with the by in the seventeenth the in Minas Gerais during the of the eighteenth century to be of in of and A frontier with in the that in the of the and after their to the Minas of frontier by be and by sometimes and to search for new of to to to to and slaves, and for of these the of was by then a the by and settlers, and for The virtually every the of the eighteenth century and then the the in and then called on the to with subject to By of the to with the in of to the region as an of large the of with the of a in the of the to the as the which between the and the when and the of the the by the of the from the and to from the of the of the crown with and to and often to the of indigenous the crown this in Brazil the and in Minas and captaincy however, and the the in to the of and to the in Minas Gerais, as well as to groups in and an of it the and of a that a in Minas the of the captaincy in crown indigenous a of to their the 1760s da these and as of called to the The indigenous in the time during the in with a in the of Portuguese to of the peoples of the their of a of in in the the of the between and and to the to of in the of and social in their for a the of which to the in of their and The on the crown to be the and to which these for political and of their land, to for and on the as the the of to and the to with the the as of the this a to their colonial by the de of was to the and of the to the of and to the in the in the of the of de of and and to colonists to own of as the by in of of the of of the to the to the would be subject to the of by the The would and these and the of and that would the transition to and to the and to which the the would to to the and to the the of in the to the of the and to as as as a The in an these the of the who from Brazil on the of this for by the crown and to the of Portuguese America by in and in the of the the of indigenous it was in of Brazil continued in well the have subject to the as by as de that the of a of and the was as great as Minas Gerais the of the and the the for the of with in the of still on the of the mining the time of the to the of who would as of Minas Gerais in 1763, was still as of the and the to the of to the of by the Portuguese in the and Minas Gerais, however, the primary would the unsettled crown to local the of the for for a of by The first was the as of in in which the crown to in with to to the in the of white to of the and in the and of these land was to be in the of a to which the would be for the of and to be with Portuguese of the by would these The the of in on the of the from Brazil in The was a from in after of Minas Gerais. The the to with an the to of the in to the and that the would for in the the to to to the The was that in to from in the region both as well as that from with and with these peoples of the with which have in the in which to this these the the of the great it from the crown it was to on the subject of in the be and was on by on accompanying however, it of to on with and with these in by the of crown indigenous in of the A of to during the of by their in and on their in and of land in their and the of these in in Minas Gerais, local in the on violent The for was the of on for in the of in the of the from the and of the The called for these to be in by and to in and it that that these the of their and that to be an of was to to actions on the of that the from the on the to with the of in to the of the who Minas Gerais. to be the of a Portuguese that to the of to the to the and to the of the of the for the of Minas Gerais, would first have to be in to that would have to be in to the and called that their in with the be in of that captaincy to the by the their resistance with to in of the of crown indigenous and to the of The of the the to be was to be as the to a the the to colonial as was the of the of violent in in the of eighteenth to and the of in the on after in Rio de Janeiro from the to the that to from that the the of Minas Gerais. the that the especially the of the and to of the in and to great to and to to and of the Portuguese and in their and their and their and for of to the to in and to in the of a and a the the of of it with of and a that would to their and the by to the of as as the the of Minas Gerais was to of each for a of lands by the for and the of these would with which would every during the the the of in these actions would be of and subject to a of of the with the of and The the Minas to and for of the to be with every to of the The would to who to to of the that the by be this on the The of the be to a by the de the from Bahia to Rio de Janeiro in and to the the of the of with the and indigenous groups in Bahia to that the of these lands and for the that the to the of Minas Gerais, however, the of be primary as called on the crown as early as to a new of in the de the to the to and to the region for the of would have to be with the of the local to actions in the region as a as a century was that be in a to the of conflict between and in Minas Gerais in the 1760s the to of of their to in of their of of their to the crown and of these with the as to to a to the The of was on that and in the it to a colonial of the that to the of as the of and the to the however, the the to lands in an to crown A of as in a to settlement concerns from a mining of this from the that the to with in the lands that the mining from the of local that from the of crown with to the and and, the of in during a in which to have a a have in the on between the colonial and the of by the gold A of in the with the that as in the The of the indigenous and during the gold to to to the and an of violent conflict between the captaincy and in the the on as the in between the and the of the of southeastern The of in that for a of of the in the of the colonial to frontier it the of a new of between the Portuguese and the a of the and seventeenth then it in it to a as a both of internal colonization to the of the mining and of the of crown in the of local the the for an of violent in on the was still The of to the to of the of the in the early with in the the of and on both indigenous and internal to the of to the in Rio de Janeiro the crown in it transferred to well the century would these in to and then local continued to the for indigenous on the of the to the and and by the crown and this local of and frontier the of and that the of frontier and resistance to the of a region that as an urban Minas Gerais, from the after the seventeenth it by the of the that to with the of frontier to and the of on of this de and de The of of and and

Archaeology · Colonialism · Frontier · Geography · Colonialism, slavery, and trade · Historical and Cultural Archaeology Studies · History · History of Colonial Brazil

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