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A close relative and counsellor of five emperors and two kings of Spain, Maria of Austria (1528–1603) symbolised the personal union of the House of Austria during the second half of the sixteenth century. She acted as regent of Spain, consort queen of Bohemia, empress, and as dowager empress continued her political activities while ostensibly secluded in a convent. Mainly through non-institutional channels, Maria was the spinal column of the dynasty. Her active role shows the real nature of Renaissance diplomacy and international relations which was much more based on personal and informal contacts than on formal embassies. The successive Spanish and Imperial ambassadors she dealt with were considered her de facto personal servants. Reconstructing diplomacy as a family business carried out through informal agents and networks prompts new questions on political goals and programmes as well as on decision-making and soft-power strategies

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