Power-sharing and peace in Côte d'Ivoire

Many scholars have expressed grave concerns over the increased popularity of power-sharing agreements in Africa, arguing that power-sharing is an unstable form of government that provides only short-term reprieve from violent conflict. While most African experiments with power-sharing have failed, this does not necessarily invalidate the case for employing such agreements. The critical importance of context has been cited as a key factor in explaining the success or failure of power-sharing. In other words, it is not that power-sharing is inherently flawed but rather that it should only be employed in certain contexts. This article examines the role of context in explaining different power-sharing outcomes by analysing power-sharing in Côte d'Ivoire. The country provides an excellent case study for examining the importance of context as power-sharing agreements have been adopted in a variety of contexts with diverging outcomes. The article systematically examines key peace agreements and resulting power-sharing arrangements since the outbreak of civil war in 2002 in order to evaluate which factors help to explain successes and failures of power-sharing in Côte d'Ivoire. The article concludes by considering how previous examples may help to shed light on future prospects for power-sharing in Côte d'Ivoire and elsewhere. Acknowledgements Earlier versions of this article were presented at the Ethnicity and Democratic Governance workshop on power-sharing at the University of Toronto in November 2011 and the International Studies Association Annual Meeting in San Diego in April 2012. I would like to thank the following people for their stimulating questions and insightful suggestions on earlier versions of the paper: Michael Bratton, J. Andrew Grant, Richard Marcus, John McGarry and Christina Murray. Finally, this article has benefited from the numerous comments and suggestions by the anonymous reviewers of Conflict, Security & Development. I also gratefully acknowledge financial support from the Social Sciences and Humanities Research Council of Canada. Notes 1. Cheeseman and Tendi Cheeseman, Nic and Tendi, Blessing-Miles. 2010. Power-Sharing in Comparative Perspective: The Dynamics of "Unity Government" in Kenya and Zimbabwe. The Journal of Modern African Studies, 48(2): 203–229. [Crossref], [Web of Science ®] , [Google Scholar], 'Power-Sharing in Comparative Perspective', 204. 2. Cheeseman Cheeseman, Nic. 2011. The Internal Dynamics of Power-Sharing in Africa. Democratization, 18(2): 336–365. [Taylor & Francis Online], [Web of Science ®] , [Google Scholar], 'Internal Dynamics of Power-Sharing', 338. 3. Spears Spears, Ian. 2000. Understanding Inclusive Peace Agreements in Africa: The Problems of Sharing Power. Third World Quarterly, 21(1): 105–118. 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Piccolino echoes this point, as she states that '[f]or Gbagbo and the elite surrounding him, France's impartiality was neither acceptable nor credible, and France's decision not to activate the defence agreements between the two countries amounted to a betrayal'. See Piccolino Piccolino, Giulia. 2012. David Against Goliath in Côte d'Ivoire? Laurent Gbagbo's War Against Global Governance. African Affairs, 111(442): 1–23. [Crossref], [Web of Science ®] , [Google Scholar], 'David against Goliath in Côte d'Ivoire?', 7. 34. The Linas-Marcoussis Agreement outlined an exhaustive list of concerns addressing a wide range of issues on disarmament, security sector reform, human rights violations and media incitement to xenophobia and violence, the organisation and supervision of elections, and measures to end divisive policies on national identification, citizenship, foreign nationals, land tenure and eligibility for the presidency. See ICG International Crisis Group (ICG). 2003. "Côte d'Ivoire: "The War is Not Yet Over". In Africa Report, no. 72, Brussels: ICG. [Google Scholar], 'War is Not Yet Over'. 35. Mehler, 'Peace and Power Sharing in Africa', 462. 36. Chirot, 'Debacle in Côte d'Ivoire', 72. 37. ICG, 'War is Not yet Over'. 38. Mehler, 'Peace and Power Sharing in Africa', 466. 39. Mehler, 'Peace and Power Sharing in Africa',466 40. Cheeseman, 'Internal Dynamics of Power-Sharing', 340–341. 41. Cheeseman reiterates this point in the following quote: 'Take Cote d'Ivoire. The main protagonists in the country's slide into civil war—Alassane Ouattara, Laurent Gbagbo, Henri Konan Bédié and General Gueï—entered into a number of different marriages of convenience following the death of President Houphouët-Boigny in 1993. While on the face of it these alliances suggest a high level of elite coherence, they were typically designed not to be inclusive of the full range of elite interests, but rather to exclude and so marginalize a mutually feared rival. Furthermore, these coalitions were generally short-lived and often ended in acrimony, and thus did not contribute to the evolution of norms of mutual accommodation. Consequently, Cote d'Ivoire is best understood as a case of low elite cohesion'. Cheeseman, 'Internal Dynamics of Power-Sharing', 340–341, 342. 42. Marshall-Fratani, 'War of "Who is Who"'. 43. Yabi and Goodwin Yabi, Gilles and Goodwin, Andrew. 2009. "From Linas-Marcoussis to the Ouagadougou Political Agreement: The Tortuous and Open-Ended Peace Agreement". In From Civil Strife to Peace Building: Examining Private Sector Involvement in West African Reconstruction, Edited by: Besada, H. 17–32. Waterloo, ON: Wilfrid Laurier University Press. [Google Scholar], 'Linas-Marcoussis to Ouagadougou', 19. 44. Yabi and Goodwin Yabi, Gilles and Goodwin, Andrew. 2009. "From Linas-Marcoussis to the Ouagadougou Political Agreement: The Tortuous and Open-Ended Peace Agreement". In From Civil Strife to Peace Building: Examining Private Sector Involvement in West African Reconstruction, Edited by: Besada, H. 17–32. Waterloo, ON: Wilfrid Laurier University Press. [Google Scholar], 'Linas-Marcoussis to Ouagadougou", 19, 20. 45. Bah Bah, Abu Bakarr. 2010. Democracy and Civil War: Citizenship and Peacemaking in Côte d'Ivoire. African Affairs, 109(437): 597–615. [Crossref], [Web of Science ®] , [Google Scholar], 'Democracy and Civil War', 609. 46. ICG International Crisis Group (ICG). 2007. "Côte d'Ivoire: Can the Ouagadougou Agreement Bring Peace?". In Africa Report, no. 127, Brussels: ICG. [Google Scholar], 'Can the Ouagadougou Agreement Bring Peace'. 47. Mehler, 'Peace and Power Sharing in Africa', 459. 48. Yabi and Goodwin, 'Linas-Marcoussis to Ouagadougou', 21–22. 49. Bah, 'Democracy and Civil War', 613. 50. Bah, 'Democracy and Civil War', 613, 614. 51. ICG International Crisis Group (ICG). 2009. "Côte d'Ivoire: What's Needed to End the Crisis?". 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