In the shadows of war and peace

This article addresses an urgent but largely sidelined issue in the study of peace processes: that high levels of violence-usually framed as 'crime'-are often ubiquitous in societies experiencing peace processes, even after the signing of peace accords. From South Africa to El Salvador, Guatemala to Northern Ireland, rising interpersonal violence has come to characterise the 'peace'. This violence often takes place in the context of ambitious post-conflict development efforts. The article argues that even the seemingly non-political violence after peace accords is intimately linked to war, as well as the peace process-in both the causes of violence and in the types of violence that perpetrators use. In order to conceptualise post-peace accord violence, the article presents a framework of violence based on the perpetrators of violence and the types of violence (social, economic or political) that occur. This unpacking of post-peace accord violence emphasises the interconnectedness of political and non-political violence, and stresses the importance of security for development. Notes 1. Scheper-Hughes Scheper-Hughes, Nancy. 1997. Peace-time Crimes. Social Identities, 3(3): 471-497. [Taylor & Francis Online] , [Google Scholar], 'Peace-time Crimes'. 2. Steenkamp Steenkamp, Christina. 2009. Violence and Post-war Reconstruction. Managing Insecurity in the Aftermath of Peace Accords, London: IB Tauris. [Crossref] , [Google Scholar], Violence and Post-war Reconstruction, 2. 3. Newman and Richmond Newman, Edward and Richmond, Oliver P. 2006. Challenges to Peacebuilding: Managing Spoilers During Conflict Resolution, New York: UNU. eds. [Google Scholar], Challenges to Peacebuilding; Stedman, 'Spoiler Problems in Peace Processes'; Zahar Zahar, Marie-Joëlle. 2003. "Reframing the Spoiler Debate in Peace Processes". In Contemporary Peace Making. Conflict, Violence and Peace Processes, Edited by: Darby, John and MacGinty, Roger. 114-124. Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan. [Google Scholar], 'Reframing The Spoiler Debate'. 4. Call Call, Charles, 1999. 'Crime and Peace: Why successful Peace Processes Produce the World's most Violent Countries'. Paper presented at the annual conference of the International Studies Association (ISA), Washington, DC, February [Google Scholar], 'Crime and Peace'; Call and Stanley Call, Charles and Stanley, William. 2001. Protecting the People: Public Security Choices after Civil War. Global Governance, 7(2): 151-172. [Crossref], [Web of Science (R)] , [Google Scholar], 'Protecting the People'; Du Toit Du Toit, Pierre. 2001. South Africa's Brittle Peace. The Problem of Post-settlement Violence, Basingstoke: Palgrave. [Crossref] , [Google Scholar], South Africa's Brittle Peace; Moser, Violence in Columbia; Moser and McIllwaine Moser, Caroline O.N. and McIlwaine, Cathy. 2001. Violence in a Post-conflict Context. Urban Poor Perceptions from Guatemala, Washington, DC: The World Bank. [Crossref] , [Google Scholar], Violence in a Post-conflict Context; Shaw Shaw, Mark. 1995. Partners in Crime? Crime, Political Transition and Changing Forms of Policing Control, Johannesburg: Centre for Policy Studies. [Google Scholar], Partners in Crime?; Shaw Shaw, Mark. 2002. Crime and Policing in post Apartheid South Africa. Transforming under Fire, Cape Town: David Phillips. [Google Scholar], Crime and Policing, Steenkamp, Violence and Post-war Reconstruction. 5. MacGinty Mac Ginty, Roger. 2006. "Northern Ireland: a Peace Process Thwarted by Accidental Spoiling". In Challenges to Peacebuilding: Managing Spoilers During Conflict Resolution, Edited by: Newman, Edward and Richmond, Oliver P. 153-172. New York: UNU. [Google Scholar], 'Northern Ireland'. 6. For example, see Collier Collier, Paul. 2000. Economic Causes of Civil Conflict and their Implications for Policy, Washington, DC: World Bank. [Google Scholar], Economic Causes of Civil War; Kaldor, New Wars; Mueller Mueller, John. 2004. The Remnants of War, Ithaca: Cornell University Press. [Google Scholar], The Remnants of War; Nordstrom, Shadows of War. 7. International Journal of Conflict and Violence, Eisner and Karsted, 'General Theory of Violence'; Shaw Shaw, Mark. 2009. Conceptual and Theoretical Frameworks for Organized Crime. International Journal of Conflict and Violence, 3(1): 97-106. [Google Scholar], 'Conceptual and Theoretical Frameworks'. 8. Galtung Galtung, Johan. 1969. Violence, Peace and Peace Research. Journal of Peace Research, 6(3): 167-191. [Crossref] , [Google Scholar], 'Violence, Peace and Peace Research'. Galtung makes the now influential distinction between direct, personal violence and indirect, structural violence (i.e. social injustice) to illustrate how the individual's life chances can be hindered in different ways. 9. Caldeira and Holston Caldeira, Theresa P.R. and Holston, James. 1999. Democracy and Violence in Brazil. Comparative Studies in Society and History, 41(4): 691-729. [Crossref], [Web of Science (R)] , [Google Scholar], 'Democracy and Violence'. 10. Moser and McIlwaine, Violence in a Post-conflict Context; Preti Preti, Alessandro. 2002. Guatemala: Violence in Peacetime - a Critical Analysis of the Armed Conflict and the Peace Process. Disasters, 26(2): 99-119. [Crossref], [PubMed] , [Google Scholar], 'Guatemala: Violence in Peacetime', 110. 11. Childs Childs, J.M. 2000. Greed: Economics and Ethics in Conflict, Minneapolis: Fortress Press. [Google Scholar], Greed; Collier and Hoeffler Collier, Paul and Hoeffler, Anke. 1998. On Economic Causes of Civil War. Oxford Economic Papers, 50(4): 563-573. [Crossref], [Web of Science (R)] , [Google Scholar], 'On Economic Causes'; Collier and Hoeffler Collier, Paul and Hoeffler, Anke. 2004. Greed and Grievance in Civil War. Oxford Economic Papers, 56(4): 553-595. [Crossref] , [Google Scholar], 'Greed and Grievance'; Cornell Cornell, S.E. 2005. The Interaction of Narcotics and Conflict. Journal of Peace Research, 42(6): 751-760. [Crossref], [Web of Science (R)] , [Google Scholar], 'Narcotics and Conflict'; Herbst Herbst, Jeffrey. 2000. Economic Incentives, Natural Resources and Conflict in Africa. Journal of African Economies, 9(3): 270-294. [Crossref], [Web of Science (R)] , [Google Scholar], 'Economic Incentives'. 12. Godoy Godoy, Angelina S. 2002. Lynchings and the Democratisation of Terror in Postwar Guatemala: Implications for Human Rights. Human Rights Quarterly, 24: 640-661. [Crossref], [Web of Science (R)] , [Google Scholar], 'Lynchings and the Democratisation of Terror'. 13. Handy Handy, Jim. 2004. Chicken Thieves, Witches, and Judges: Vigilante Justice and Customary Law in Guatemala. Journal of Latin American Studies, 36(3): 533-561. [Crossref] , [Google Scholar], 'Vigilante Justice and Customary Law', 541. 14. Steenkamp Steenkamp, Chrissie. 2005. The Legacy of War: Conceptualizing a "Culture of Violence" to Explain Violence after Peace Accords. The Round Table. The Commonwealth Journal of International Relations, 94(2): 253-268. [Taylor & Francis Online] , [Google Scholar], 'The Legacy of War'. 15. Steenkamp, Violence and Post-war Reconstruction, 62-66. 16. Shaw, Partners in Crime?; Shaw, Crime and Policing. 17. A vigorous criticism of liberal internationalism and the associated Liberal Peace as the dominant modes of Western peacemaking has developed in recent years. For a selection, see Duffield Duffield, Mark. 2007. Development, Security and Unending War, London: Polity. [Google Scholar], Development; MacGinty Mac Ginty, Roger. 2006. No War No Peace. The Rejuvenation of Stalled Peace Accords, Basingstoke: Palgrave. [Crossref] , [Google Scholar], No War No Peace; Lidén et al. Lidén, Kristoffer, Mac Ginty, Roger and Richmond, Oliver P. 2009. Liberal Peacebuilding Reconstructed. Special Issue, International Peacekeeping, 16(5): 587-734. (eds.)[Taylor & Francis Online], [Web of Science (R)] , [Google Scholar], 'Liberal Peacebuilding Reconstructed'; Paris Paris, Roland. 2004. At War's End: Building Peace after Civil Conflict, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. [Crossref] , [Google Scholar], At War's End; Pugh et al. Pugh, Michael, Cooper, Neil and Turner, Mandy, eds. 2008. "Whose Peace? Critical Perspectives on the Political Economy of Peacebuilding". Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan. [Crossref] , [Google Scholar], Whose Peace?; Richmond Richmond, Oliver P. 2005. The Transformation of Peace, Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan. [Crossref] , [Google Scholar], The Transformation of Peace. 18. Newman et al. Newman, Edward, Paris, Roland and Richmond, Oliver P. 2009. "Introduction". In New Perspectives on Liberal Peacebuilding, Edited by: Newman, Edward, Paris, Roland and Richmond, Oliver P. 3-25. Tokyo: United Nations University Press. [Google Scholar], 'Introduction'. 19. Pugh et al. Pugh, Michael, Cooper, Neil and Turner, Mandy. 2008. "Conclusion: The Political Economy of Peacebuilding-Whose Peace? Where Next?". In Whose Peace? Critical Perspectives on the Political Economy of Peacebuilding, Edited by: Pugh, Michael, Cooper, Neil and Turner, Mandy. 392-401. Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan. [Crossref] , [Google Scholar], 'Conclusion'; Richmond and Franks Richmond, Oliver P. and Franks, Jason. 2009. The Impact of Orthodox Terrorism Discourses on the Liberal Peace: Internalisation, Resistance or Hybridisation?. Critical Studies on Terrorism, 2(2): 201-218. [Taylor & Francis Online] , [Google Scholar], 'Impact of Orthodox Terrorism'. 20. Karstedt Karstedt, Susanne. 2003. Legacies of a Culture of Inequality: The Janus Face of Crime in Post-Communist Countries. Crime, Law and Social Change, 40: 295-320. [Crossref], [Web of Science (R)] , [Google Scholar], 'Legacies of a Culture of Inequality'; Lotspeich Lotspeich, Richard. 2003. Crime and Corruption in Transitional Economies: Lessons for Cuba. Policy Reform, 6(2): 71-87. [Taylor & Francis Online] , [Google Scholar], 'Crime in Transition Economies'; Lotspeich Lotspeich, Richard. 2003. Crime and Corruption in Transitional Economies: Lessons for Cuba. Policy Reform, 6(2): 71-87. [Taylor & Francis Online] , [Google Scholar], 'Crime and Corruption'; Moran Moran, Jonathan. 2001. Democratic Transitions and Forms of Corruption. Crime, Law and Social Change, 36: 379-393. [Crossref], [Web of Science (R)] , [Google Scholar], 'Democratic transitions'; Pelser and De Kock Pelser, André and de Kock, Chris. 2000. Violence in South Africa: A Note on Some Trends in the 1990s. Acta Criminologica, 13(1): 80-91. [Google Scholar], 'Violence in South Africa'. 21. Call Call, Charles. 2003. Democratisation, War and State-building: Constructing the Rule of Law in El Salvador. Journal of Latin American Studies, 35: 827-862. [Crossref], [Web of Science (R)] , [Google Scholar], 'Democratisation, War and Statebuilding'. 22. Call and Stanley, 'Protecting the People'; Call and Stanley Call, Charles and Stanley, William. 2002. "Civilian Security". In I Ending Civil Wars: The Implementation of Peace Agreements, Edited by: Stedman, Stephen, Rothchild, Donald and Cousens, Elizabeth. 303-326. Boulder, CO: Lynne Rienner. [Crossref] , [Google Scholar], 'Civilian Security'. 23. Gamba Gamba, Virginia. 2003. "Managing Violence: Disarmament and Demobilisation". In Contemporary Peacemaking. Conflict, Violence and Peace Processes, Edited by: Darby, John and MacGinty, Roger. 125-136. Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan. [Google Scholar], 'Managing Violence', 126. 24. In general, see Call and Stanley, 'Civilian Security'; Call and Stanley, 'Protecting the People'; Darby Darby, John. 2001. The Effects of Violence on Peace Processes, Washington, DC: USIP. [Google Scholar], The Effects of Violence; Darby Darby, John. 2006. Violence and Reconstruction, South Bend, IN: Notre Dame University Press. (ed.) [Google Scholar], Violence and Reconstruction; Höglund and Zartman Höglund, Kristine and William Zartman, I. 2006. "Violence by the State: Official Spoilers and Their Allies". In Violence and Reconstruction, Edited by: Darby, John. 11-31. South Bend, Indiana: Notre Dame University Press. [Google Scholar], 'Violence by the State'. On Central America, see Call, 'Democratization, War and State-building'; Moser Moser, Caroline. 2000. Violence in Colombia: Building Sustainable Peace and Social Capital, Washington, DC: The World Bank. [Google Scholar], Violence in Columbia; Moser and McIllwaine, Violence in a Post-conflict Context; Moser, and Winton Moser, Caroline and Winton, Alisa. 2002. "Violence in the Central American Region: Towards an Integrated Framework for Violence Reduction". Working Paper 171 London: Overseas Development Institute. [Google Scholar], 'Violence in the Central American Region'; Preti, 'Guatemala: Violence in Peacetime'. On South Africa, see Du Toit, South Africa's Brittle Peace, and on Northern Ireland, see Jarman Jarman, Neil. 2004. From War to Peace? Changing Patterns of Violence in Northern Ireland, 1990-2003. Terrorism and Political Violence, 16(3): 420-438. [Taylor & Francis Online], [Web of Science (R)] , [Google Scholar], 'From War to Peace?' and Neumann Neumann, Peter N. 2002. The Imperfect Peace: Explaining Paramilitary Violence in Northern Ireland. Low Intensity Conflict and Law Enforcement, 11(1): 116-138. [Taylor & Francis Online] , [Google Scholar], 'The Imperfect Peace'; Hume, Armed Violence and Poverty in El Salvador. 25. Darby, The Effects of Violence and Moser and Winton, 'Violence in the Central American Region'. 26. Moser and McIlwaine Moser, Caroline O.N. and McIlwaine, Cathy. 2006. Latin American Urban Violence as a Development Concern: Towards a Framework for Violence Reduction. World Development, 34(1): 89-112. [Crossref], [Web of Science (R)] , [Google Scholar], 'Latin American Urban Violence', 94; Moser and McIlwaine, Violence in a Post-conflict Context, 159-160; Moser and Winton, 'Violence in the Central American Region'; Steenkamp Steenkamp, Christina. 2008. Loyalist Paramilitary Violence After the Belfast Agreement. Ethnopolitics, 7(1): 159-176. [Taylor & Francis Online] , [Google Scholar], 'Loyalist Paramilitary Violence'. 27. Social violence, then, is typically defined as the use of force by actors, such as gangs or vigilantes, to enhance their influence in society. Equally, economic violence is often conceptualised as force typically used by groups such as mafia to further business and economic interests. 28. Wilkinson Wilkinson, S.I. 2004. Votes and Violence. Electoral Competition and Ethnic Riots in India, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. [Crossref] , [Google Scholar], Votes and Violence. 29. Stedman Stedman, Stephen J. 1997. Spoiler Problems in Peace Processes. International Security, 22(2): 5-53. [Crossref], [Web of Science (R)] , [Google Scholar], 'Spoiler Problems', 11. 30. Stedman,'Spoiler Problems', 11 and Darby, The Effects of Violence, 49. 31. Pelser and De Kock, 'Violence in South Africa'. 32. Steenkamp, The Legacy of War. 33. Kaldor Kaldor, Mary. 1999. New and Old Wars. Organised Violence in a Global Era, Cambridge: Polity. [Google Scholar], New and Old Wars; Nordstrom Nordstrom, Carolyn. 2004. Shadows of War. Violence, Powers and International Profiteering in the Twenty-first Century, Los Angeles: University of California Press. [Google Scholar], The Shadows of War. Mary Kaldor's notion of 'new wars' holds that conflicts are increasingly shaped by globalisation and the opportunities that it affords to organised crime. Nordstrom illustrates the cross-border linkages between actors in the often shadowy world of international arms trade and transnational organised crime in the context of conflict. 34. A distinction has traditionally been made between Private Military Companies (PMCs) and Private Security Companies (PSCs), but in reality, this distinction is becoming increasingly theoretical as PMCs are increasingly also providing day-to-day security services to their clients, and PSCs are expanding into the areas of military training. See Kinsey Kinsey, Christopher. 2006. Corporate Soldiers and International Security. The Rise of Private Military Companies, Abingdon: Routledge. [Crossref] , [Google Scholar], Corporate Soldiers and Schreier and Caparini Schreier, Fred and Marina Caparini, 2005. 'Privatising Security: Law, Practice and Governance of Private Military and Security Companies'. Occasional Paper 6. Geneva Centre for the Democratic Control of Armed Forces, Geneva [Google Scholar], 'Privatising Security', 17-33. Consequently, the term PMCs as it is used in this paper refers to both private military and security companies who provide day-to-day security to their clients. 35. Scahill, Jeremy, 'Our mercenaries in Iraq'. The Los Angeles Times, 28 January 2007. 36. Blackwater has since been renamed to Xe Services LLC in 2009. The suitability of using the Blackwater example could be questioned, since post-invasion Iraq does not represent a post-conflict setting with a negotiated peace accord. Yet, despite the high levels of political violence Iraq is subject to a large degree of international peace building and reconstruction activities, such as electoral reform, Security Sector Reform and infrastructural rebuilding. This reconstruction takes place in a very violent context-to which the international PMCs contribute. International security providers operate in various post-conflict zones globally. Blackwater in Iraq provides a striking example of how they can (mis)use violence. 37. CNN, 'Blackwater Most Often Shoots First, Congressional Report Says', 1 October 2007. Available online at http://articles.cnn.com/2007-10-01/world/blackwater.report_1_blackwater-contractor-baghdad-s-nisoor-square-blackwater-usa-guards?_s = PM:WORLD [Accessed 1 March 2011]. 38. Walker, Peter, 'Blackwater Guards Shot Iraqis Without Provocation, Reports Says'. The Guardian, 8 October 2007. 39. TIME. 'Victims of an Outsourced War', 5 March 2007. Available at: http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,1599682,00.html [Accessed 2 March 2011]. 40. SHARE Foundation SHARE Foundation, 2008. 'Fact Sheet on Human Rights in El Salvador. The Case of Political Murders'. Available at: http://www.share-elsalvador.org/programs/advocacy/factsheetpoliticalmurders.pdf [Accessed 5 March 2011] [Google Scholar], 'Fact Sheet'. 41. SHARE Foundation SHARE Foundation, 2008. 'Fact Sheet on Human Rights in El Salvador. The Case of Political Murders'. Available at: http://www.share-elsalvador.org/programs/advocacy/factsheetpoliticalmurders.pdf [Accessed 5 March 2011] [Google Scholar], 'Fact Sheet' 42. Moser and Winton, 'Violence in the Central American Region', 12. 43. Ellis Ellis, Stephen. 1994. Of Elephants and Men: Politics and Nature Conservation in South Africa. Journal of Southern African Studies, 20(1): 53-69. [Taylor & Francis Online], [Web of Science (R)] , [Google Scholar], 'Of Elephants and Men'. 44. Call, 'Democratisation, War and State-building'. 45. 'Militias' is the generic term used in this section to refer to non-state violent political protagonists during the war and would include paramilitaries, guerrillas and others. 46. This is illustrated by the practice of paramilitary punishment beatings in Northern Ireland. Knox and Managhan, Informal Justice in Divided Societies. 47. Johnston Johnston, Les. 1996. What is Vigilantism?. British Journal of Criminology, 36(2): 220-236. [Crossref], [Web of Science (R)] , [Google Scholar], 'What is Vigilantism?'. 48. The British government and its security forces were a main party to the conflict, often accused of colluding with Loyalist paramilitaries. The Agreement designed a new political regime based on power-sharing between former foes, including members of the PIRA. 49. Independent Monitoring Commission Independent Monitoring Commission. 2007. "Fifteenth Report of the Independent Monitoring Commission". London: The Stationary Office. [Google Scholar], 'Fifteenth Report', 4-6, 12; McDonald, Henry. 'Northern Ireland Terror Threat at "Severe" Level'. The Guardian, 6 February 2011. Available at: http://www.guardian.co.uk/uk/2011/feb/06/northern-irish-terror-threat-severe [Accessed 5 March 2011]. 50. Moran Moran, Jon. 2004. Paramilitary, "Ordinary Decent Criminals" and the Development of Organised Crime Following the Belfast Agreement. International Journal of the Sociology of Law, 32: 263-278. [Crossref] , [Google Scholar], 'Ordinary Decent Criminals'. 51. BBC News, 'NI Gangs "Extorting Millions"', 11 June 2003. Available online at: http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/northern_ireland/2979176.stm [Accessed 5 March 2011]; Independent Monitoring Committee, 'Fifteenth Report'. 52. Knox Knox, Colin. 2001. The "Deserving" Victims of Political Violence; "Punishment" Attacks in Northern Ireland. Criminal Justice, 1(2): 181-199. [Crossref] , [Google Scholar], 'Deserving Victims'; Knox Knox, Colin. 2002. "See No Evil, Hear No Evil." Insidious Paramilitary Violence in Northern Ireland. British Journal of Criminology, 42: 164-185. [Crossref], [Web of Science (R)] , [Google Scholar], 'See no Evil', 171-176; Knox and Monaghan Knox, Colin and Monaghan, Rachel. 2002. Informal Justice in Divided Societies: Northern Ireland and South Africa, New York: Pagrave Macmillan. [Crossref] , [Google Scholar], Informal Justice; Neumann, 'The Imperfect Peace'. 53. Johnston, 'What is Vigilantism?'. 54. Dixon and Johns Dixon, Bill and Johns, Lisa-Marie. 2001. "Gangs, Pagad and the State: Vigilantism and Revenge Violence in the Western Cape". Violence and Transition Series 2. CSVR, Johannesburg [Google Scholar],'Gangs, Pagad and the State'. More information on the complexities of Pagad and it demise, can be found in the following sources: Bangstad Bangstad, Susan. 2005. Hydra's Heads: PAGAD and Responses to the Pagad Phenomenon in a Cape Muslim Community. Journal of Southern African Studies, 31(1): 187-208. [Taylor & Francis Online], [Web of Science (R)] , [Google Scholar], 'Hydra's Heads'; Boshoff et al. Boshoff, Henri, Botha, Anneli and Schönteich, Martin. 2001. Fear in the City. Urban Terrorism in South Africa. ISS Monography 63, Cape Town: Institute for Security Studies. [Google Scholar], Fear in the City; Esack Esack, Farid. 1996. PAGAD and Islamic Radicalism: Taking on the State?. Indicator SA, 13(4): 7-11. [Google Scholar], 'Pagad and Islamic Radicalism'; Le Roux Le Roux, C.J.B. 1997. People Against Gangsterism and Drugs - (PAGAD). Journal of Contemporary History, 22(1): 51-80. [Google Scholar], 'People Against Gangsterism and Drugs'. 55. Botha Botha, Anneli. 2001. "The Prime Suspects? The Metamorphosis of PAGAD". In Fear in the City. Urban Terrorism in South Africa. ISS Monograph 63, Edited by: Boshoff, Henri and Botha, Anneli. Cape Town: Institute for Security Studies. [Google Scholar], 'The Prime Suspects?'. 56. Botha Botha, Anneli. 2001. "The Prime Suspects? The Metamorphosis of PAGAD". In Fear in the City. Urban Terrorism in South Africa. ISS Monograph 63, Edited by: Boshoff, Henri and Botha, Anneli. Cape Town: Institute for Security Studies. [Google Scholar], 'The Prime Suspects?' Pagad also became increasingly perceived as a vehicle for the more sinister motives of fundamentalist Islamists and, coupled with its increasingly violent methods, it alienated many of its moderate supporters. 57. Blok Blok, Anton. 2000. "The Enigma of Senseless Violence". In Meanings of Violence. A Cross-cultural Perspective, Edited by: Aijmer, Göran and Abbink, Jan. 23-38. Oxford: Berg. [Google Scholar], 'The Enigma of Senseless Violence'. 58. Horowitz Horowitz, Donald. 2001. The Deadly Ethnic Riot, Los Angeles: University of California Press. [Crossref] , [Google Scholar], The Deadly Ethnic Riot. 59. Schieber, B., 'Lynching and Mob Violence in Guatemala. Why?'. The Guatemala Times. 8 December 2009. Available online at: http://www.guatemala-times.com/news/guatemala/1295-lynching-and-mob-violence-in-guatemala-why.html [Accessed 10 December 2009]. 60. Handy, 'Vigilante Justice and Customary Law', 540. 61. Fernández García Fernández, García and María Cristina, 2004. 'Lynching in Guatemala. Legacy of War and Impunity'. Report for the Weatherhead Centre for International Affairs, Harvard University [Google Scholar], 'Lynching in Guatemala', 12. 62. Godoy, 'Lynchings and Democratisation', 644. 63. Simpson, Mark, '"Theme park" Rioting Raises Old Fears'. BBC News, 14 July 2010. Available online at: http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-northern+ireland-10642007 [Accessed 28 February 2011]. 64. Steinberg Steinberg, Jonny. 2008. "South Africa's Xenophobic Eruption". ISS Paper 169 Cape Town: ISS. [Google Scholar], 'South Africa's Xenophobic Eruption'; Handmaker and Parsley, Handmaker, Jeff and Parsley, Jennifer. 2001. Migration, Refugees and Racism in South Africa. Refuge, 20(1): 40-51. [Crossref] , [Google Scholar] 'Migration, Refugees and Racism'; Adepojou, Adepojou, A. 2003. Continuity and Changing Configurations of Migration to and from the Republic of South Africa. International Migration, 41(1): 3-25. [Crossref] , [Google Scholar] 'Continuity and Changing Configurations of Migration', 11. 65. Wilson Wilson, R.A. 2001. The Politics of Truth and Reconciliation in South Africa. Legitimising the post Apartheid State, Cambridge: Cambridge University. [Google Scholar], The Politics of Truth and Reconciliation, 118. 66. Lee R.W., Lee II. 1999. "Transnational Organised Crime: An Overview". In Transnational Crime in the Americas, Edited by: Farer, Tom. 1-38. London: Routledge. [Google Scholar], 'Transnational Organised Crime'. 67. Arana Arana, Ana. 2005. How the Street Gangs Took Central America. Foreign Affairs, 84(3): 98-110. [Crossref], [Web of Science (R)] , [Google Scholar], 'Street Gangs', 99. 68. Arana Arana, Ana. 2005. How the Street Gangs Took Central America. Foreign Affairs, 84(3): 98-110. [Crossref], [Web of Science (R)] , [Google Scholar], 'Street Gangs', 101. 69. Stretesky and Pogrebin Stretesky, Paul B. and Pogrebin, Mark R. 2007. Gang-Related Gun Violence; Socialisation, Identity, and Self. Journal of Contemporary Ethnography, 36(1): 85-114. [Crossref], [Web of Science (R)] , [Google Scholar], 'Gang-Related Gun Violence', 109. 70. Moser and Winton, 'Violence in the Central American Region', 18-19. 71. BBC News, 'Stomont Attack Defused', 24 November 2006. Available online at: http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/northern_ireland/6179792.stm [Accessed 10 December 2009]. 72. Steenkamp, 'The Legacy of War'. 73. Norton-Taylor, Richard, 'US Post-invasion Tactics made Iraq Situation Worse, Chilcot Inquiry Hears'. The Guardian. 26 January 2011. Available online at: http://www.guardian.co.uk/uk/2011/jan/26/post-invasion-tactics-iraq-war-inquiry/print [Accessed 5 March 2011]. 74. Edwards and Foley Edwards, Bob and Foley, M.W. 1998. Civil Society and Social Capital Beyond Putnam. American Behavioural Scientist, 42(1): 124-139. [Crossref], [Web of Science (R)] , [Google Scholar], 'Civil Society and Social Capital

Context (archaeology · Interpersonal violence · Order (exchange · Peace and conflict studies · Poison control · Political violence · Politics · Structural violence · Peacebuilding and International Security · Political Conflict and Governance · Politics and Conflicts in Afghanistan, Pakistan, and Middle East

• “Peace cannot cost us our lives”

  Open Access•Colleen Alena O'Brien•Journal of Language and Politics•2026

  Add to list

• Building Pathways to Peace

  Open Access•Nadine Ansorg, Sabine Kurtenbach•Building Pathways to Peace•2023

  Add to list

• Assessment of factors leading to resilience among adults in violence-affected area of Kashmir

  Irfan Fayaz, Akash Saharan•Medicine Conflict & Survival•2024

  Add to list

• Varieties of post-civil war violence

  Open Access•Daniel Odin Shaw, Enrique Wedgwood Young•Violence An International Journal•2021

  Add to list

• The Prevalence of Violence in Post-Conflict Societies

  Open Access•Maria Schuld•Journal of Peacebuilding &…•2013

  Add to list

• The Role of Civil Society Actors in Peacemaking

  Open Access•Roddy Brett•Journal of Peacebuilding &…•2017

  Add to list

• Proscribing the past or de-proscribing the future

  Davina Kirkpatrick•Critical Studies on Terrorism•2018

  Add to list

• Colombia’s Program to Substitute Crops Used for Illegal Purposes

  Open Access•Manuela Nilsson, Lucía González Marín•Journal of Intervention and…•2021

  Add to list

• Peacebuilding, Structural Violence and Spatial Reparations in Post-Colonial South Africa

  Open Access•Susan Forde, Stefanie Kappler et al.•Journal of Intervention and…•2021

  Add to list

• What’s Law Got to Do with It? How the Degree of Legalization Affects the Durability of Post-Conflict Autonomy Agreements

  Felix Schulte, Gene Carolan•Ethnopolitics•2023

  Add to list

• Crime, Law, and Regime Change

  J J Savelsberg, Suzy Mcelrath•Annual Review of Law and Social…•2014

  Add to list

• Connecting the dots

  Open Access•Kirsten Howarth•Progress in Development Studies•2014

  Add to list

• Police legitimacy and approval of vigilante violence

  Open Access•Muhammad Asif•Theoretical Criminology•2022

  Add to list

• Violent Peace

  Open Access•Manuela Nilsson, Lucía González Marín•International Peacekeeping•2019

  Add to list

• Not dead but sleeping’

  Open Access•Marika Sosnowski•Leiden Journal of International Law•2020

  Add to list

• Local competitive authoritarianism and post-conflict violence. An analysis of the assassination of social leaders in Colombia

  Open Access•Julia Albarracin, Juan Pablo Milanese et al.•International Interactions•2022

  Add to list

• War and Postwar Violence

  Rosemary Gartner, Liam Kennedy•Crime and Justice•2018

  Add to list

• Local violence and politics in KwaZulu-Natal

  Anna Jarstad, Anna K Jarstad et al.•Third World Quarterly•2015

  Add to list

• Acting like a state

  Open Access•Anastasia Shesterinina•Geoforum•2023

  Add to list

• The Cultural Applicability of Desistance Research within the Arab (Syrian) Region

  Open Access•Adnan Mouhiddin, Deborah Mccarthy•The British Journal of Criminology•2026

  Add to list

• Spoiling Through Performative Nonviolence

  Kevin Hearty•Studies in Conflict and Terrorism•2017

  Add to list

• Kill All The Sorcerers

  Open Access•Murray Forsyth, Miranda Forsyth•The British Journal of Criminology•2018

  Add to list

• Despartares Decoloniales

  Open Access•Maria Liegghio, Sandra Guadalupe Ordóñez Sánchez•Violence Against Women•2024

  Add to list

• Self-sustainment dynamics in armed groups systems

  Open Access•Oscar Palma•Politics•2025

  Add to list

• Policing Institutions and Post-Conflict Peace

  Open Access•Leonardo R Arriola, Dawn Dow et al.•Journal of Conflict Resolution•2021

  Add to list

• Peacemaking referendums

  Katherine Collins, Katherine Collin•Democratization•2020

  Add to list

• Civil war recurrence and postwar violence

  Open Access•Corinne Bara, Annekatrin Deglow et al.•European Journal of International…•2021

  Add to list

• The spatiality of violence in post-war cities

  Open Access•Emma Elfversson, Ivan Gusic et al.•Third World Thematics A TWQ Journal•2019

  Add to list

• Urban restructuring, social economics and violence after conflict

  Brendan Murtagh, Adrian Grounds et al.•Third World Thematics A TWQ Journal•2019

  Add to list

• Pathways of post-conflict violence in Colombia

  Open Access•Julia Albarracin, Juan Corredor-Garcia et al.•Small Wars and Insurgencies•2023

  Add to list

• Necropolitics, peacebuilding and racialized violence

  Open Access•Krisna Ruette-Orihuela, Katherine V Gough et al.•Political Geography•2023

  Add to list

• Ceasefires as violent state-building

  Marika Sosnowski•Conflict Security and Development•2020

  Add to list

• Applying the security-development nexus on the ground

  Manuela Nilsson, Laura K Taylor•Conflict Security and Development•2017

  Add to list

• Localized legacies of civil war

  Open Access•Annekatrin Deglow•Journal of Peace Research•2016

  Add to list

• The 'Colombianisation' of Central America

  Open Access•Teo Ballvé, Kendra Mcsweeney•Journal of Latin American Studies•2020

  Add to list

• The Enigma of Senseless Violence

  Anton Blok•Meanings of Violence•2020

  Add to list

• Corporate Soldiers and International Security

  C Kinsey, Kinsey Kinsey•Corporate Soldiers and…•2006

  Add to list

• No War, No Peace

  Open Access•Roger Mac Ginty•No War, No Peace•2006

  Add to list

• At War's End

  Open Access•Roland Paris•At War's End•2004

  Add to list

• The Transformation of Peace

  Open Access•Oliver P Richmond, Oliver Richmond•Transformation of Peace•2005

  Add to list

• The Politics of Truth and Reconciliation in South Africa

  Open Access•Richard Ashby Wilson•Politics of Truth and Reconciliatio…•2001

  Add to list

• On economic causes of civil war

  Paul Collier•Oxford Economic Papers•1998

  Add to list

• Votes and Violence

  Open Access•Steven I Wilkinson•Votes and Violence•2004

  Add to list

• Violence and Post-war Reconstruction

  Conrad Steenkamp, Christina Steenkamp•Violence and Post-war Reconstructio…•2009

  Add to list

• Violence in a Post-Conflict Context

  Caroline O N Moser, Caroline Moser et al.•Violence in a Post-Conflict Context•2001

  Add to list

• Transnational Crime in the Americas

  Tom J Farer•Transnational Crime in the Americas•2004

  Add to list

• Whose Peace? Critical Perspectives on the Political Economy of Peacebuilding

  Open Access•Michael C Pugh, Michael Pugh et al.•Whose Peace? Critical Perspectives…•2008

  Add to list

• The Deadly Ethnic Riot

  Donald L Horowitz•Deadly Ethnic Riot•2001

  Add to list

• Greed and grievance in civil war

  Paul Collier•Oxford Economic Papers•2004

  Add to list

• The impact of orthodox terrorism discourses on the liberal peace

  Oliver Richmond, Jason Franks•Critical Studies on Terrorism•2009

  Add to list

• Crime in the transition economies

  Richard Lotspeich•Europe Asia Studies•1995

  Add to list

• Latin American Urban Violence as a Development Concern

  Open Access•Caroline O N Moser, Caroline Moser et al.•World Development•2005

  Add to list

• Migration, Refugees, and Racism in South Africa

  Open Access•Jeff Handmaker, Jennifer Parsley•Refuge Canada s Journal on Refuge•2001

  Add to list

• Paramilitaries, ‘ordinary decent criminals’ and the development of organised crime following the Belfast agreement

  Open Access•Jon Moran•International Journal of the…•2004

  Add to list

• Spoiler Problems in Peace Processes

  Stephen John Stedman•International Security•1997

  Add to list

• The Legacy of War

  Conrad Steenkamp, Chrissie Steenkamp•The Round Table•2005

  Add to list

• Continuity and Changing Configurations of Migration to and from the Republic of South Africa

  Open Access•Aderanti Adepoju•International Migration•2003

  Add to list

• What Is Vigilantism

  Les Johnston•The British Journal of Criminology•1996

  Add to list

• See No Evil, Hear No Evil'. Insidious Paramilitary Violence in Northern Ireland

  Colin Knox•The British Journal of Criminology•2002

  Add to list

• Loyalist Paramilitary Violence after the Belfast Agreement

  Conrad Steenkamp•Ethnopolitics•2008

  Add to list

• Crime and Policing in Post-Apartheid South Africa

  A Verdoolaege, Mark Shaw•Africa•2003

  Add to list

• Introduction

  Kristoffer Lidén, Roger Mac Ginty et al.•International Peacekeeping•2009

  Add to list

• Hydra's Heads

  Bangstad, Sindre Bangstad•Journal of Southern African Studies•2005

  Add to list

• Protecting the People

  Charles T Call, William Stanley•Global Governance A Review of…•2001

  Add to list

• From War to Peace? Changing Patterns of Violence in Northern Ireland, 1990-2003

  Neil Jarman•Terrorism and Political Violence•2004

  Add to list

• Of elephants and men

  Stephen Elli, Stephen Ellis•Journal of Southern African Studies•1994

  Add to list

• How the Street Gangs Took Central America

  Ana Arana•Foreign Affairs•2005

  Add to list

• Chicken Thieves, Witches, and Judges

  Open Access•Jim Handy•Journal of Latin American Studies•2004

  Add to list

• Violence, Peace, and Peace Research

  Open Access•Johan Galtung•Journal of Peace Research•1969

  Add to list

• The Interaction of Narcotics and Conflict

  Open Access•Svante E Cornell, Svante Cornell•Journal of Peace Research•2005

  Add to list

• Crime and Policing in Post-Apartheid South Africa

  Newell M Stultz, Mark Shaw•The International Journal of…•2002

  Add to list

• Guatemala

  Open Access•Alessandro Preti•Disasters•2002

  Add to list

• Civil Society and Social Capital Beyond Putnam

  Open Access•Brad Edwards, Bob Edwards et al.•American Behavioral Scientist•1998

  Add to list

• Democratisation, War and State-Building

  Open Access•Charles T Call•Journal of Latin American Studies•2003

  Add to list

• Specificities

  Nancy Scheper-Hughes, Nancy Scheper‐Hughes•Social Identities•1997

  Add to list

• Meanings of Violence

  Open Access•Daniel T Linger•American Ethnologist•2001

  Add to list

• Gang-Related Gun Violence

  Open Access•Paul B Stretesky, Mark R Pogrebin•Journal of Contemporary Ethnography•2007

  Add to list

• Democracy and Violence in Brazil

  Open Access•Teresa P R Caldeira, James Holston•Comparative Studies in Society…•1999

  Add to list