Into the grey zone

In 1941, German troops occupied the city of Vilnius. Mass killings started immediately, reducing the Jewish population by 70% by the end of the year. In the following two years, genocidal action ceased nearly altogether due to the effects of increasing labor shortages. Since neither Soviet POWs nor Lithuanian gentiles were available in sufficient numbers, German offices had to resort to the remaining Jewish workforce. This article explores the cases of three German officers who used economic rationale extensively in order to save their workers from mass murder. Their efforts testify to the scope of action that was open to minor Wehrmacht officers in the occupied territories. By highlighting the institutional background against which these men were able to provide help to Jews some tentative conclusions about how passive bystanders turned into active rescuers shall be drawn. Since the historian's insight into individual motivations is often frustrated by the limited availability and reliability of sources, this article stresses the impact of situational factors. By drawing on sociopsychological research the essay argues that the risks the Wehrmacht rescuers had to take not only remained fairly limited but were also marked by ambiguity. Rather than opting for outright resistance, at least two of the three men remained within a "grey zone" of moral compromise which, however, was vital to the success of their rescue efforts. He is deeply indebted to the painstaking research the members of the group have undertaken in order to shed light on Karl Plagge's life with the help of survivors' memoirs, documents, and photographs. Likewise he is grateful to two anonymous referees of the Journal of Genocide Research, whose comments helped to improve his line of reasoning, and to Therese Teutsch for proofing his English. The essay partially draws on previous research but builds on a much broader base of archival sources as well as on a different analytical framework. Notes For the denazification policy in the US occupational zone, see Lutz Niethammer, Die Mitläuferfabrik. Die Entnazifizierung am Beispiel Bayerns, 2nd ed. (Bonn and Berlin: Dietz, 1982). Hessisches Hauptstaatsarchiv Wiesbaden, Abt. 520 D-Z Nr. 519.760, Spruchkammerakte Karl Plagge (henceforth referred to as HHStA+document), Minutes, 9.2.1948, fol. 9; interview of Konrad Hesse by the author, July 4, 2001. For a similar case, see Kurt R. Grossmann, Die unbesungenen Helden. Menschen in Deutschlands dunklen Tagen, 2nd ed. (Berlin: arani, 1961), p 164. When details of Plagge's story first spread in 2001, public interest increased rapidly. A great number of newspaper articles as well as several TV documentaries portrayed the "Schindler from Darmstadt"; for a summary of both Plagge's deeds and his posthumous career see the account from the perspective of the survivors and their families: Michael D. Good, The Search for Major Plagge. The Nazi who Saved Jews (New York: Fordham University Press, 2005). Accounts of rescuers during the Holocaust are abundant although most of them are anecdotal rather than analytic; cf. Martin Gilbert, The Righteous. The Unsung Heroes of the Holocaust (London: Doubleday, 2002); the most authoritative collection with a wealth of references is The Encyclopedia of the Righteous Among the Nations: Rescuers of Jews during the Holocaust, ed.-in-chief Israel Gutman (Jerusalem: Yad Vashem, 2003). For German rescuers, see the unfinished research project by Manfred Wolfson, "Zum Widerstand gegen Hitler: Umriß eines Gruppenportäts deutscher Retter von Juden," in: Joachim Hu ̈tter, Reinhard Meyers and Dietrich Papenfuss (Eds.), Tradition und Neubeginn. Internationale Forschungen zur deutschen Geschichte im 20. Jahrhundert (Cologne: Heymanns, 1975), pp 391–407. Recently excerpts from the Wolfson Collection have been published: Beate Kosmala and Revital Ludewig-Kedmi (Eds.), Verbotene Hilfe. Deutsche Retterinnen und Retter während des Holocaust (Zu ̈rich: Auer, 2003); cf. Beate Kosmala and Claudia Schoppmann (Eds.), U ̈berleben im Untergrund. Hilfe fu ̈r Juden in Deutschland 1941–1945 (Berlin: Metropol, 2002). Raul Hilberg was among the first to identify bystanders as one of three groups of protagonists in the murder of European Jewry, adopting the term along with its institutional rather than individual meaning from Michael Marrus, The Holocaust in History (London: Penguin, 1987), pp 156–183; cf. Raul Hilberg, Perpetrators, Victims, Bystanders. The Jewish Catastrophe 1933–1945 (New York: Harper Collins, 1992); in the same vein, except for the contributions by D. Cesarani and S. Persson: Bystanders to the Holocaust: A Re-evaluation, edited by David Cesarani and Paul A. Levine (Journal of Holocaust Education, Vol 9, Nos 2–3, 2000). In the present essay the term applies strictly to individuals. Ervin Staub, "The psychology of bystanders, perpetrators, and heroic helpers," in: Leonard S. Newman and Ralph Erber (Eds.), Understanding Genocide: The Social Psychology of the Holocaust (New York: Oxford University Press, 2002), pp 11–42, distinguishes between internal (in-group) and external (out-group) rescuers. Victoria Barnett, Bystanders. Conscience and Complicity During the Holocaust (Westport and London: Greenwood Press, 1999) does not contribute significantly to bystander analysis. Recently, there has been much discussion on the heuristic potential of applying neurobiological findings to the historical analysis of human behavior; for an overview and a critical assessment see the contributions in: Christian Geyer (Ed.), Hirnforschung und Willensfreiheit. Zur Deutung der neuesten Experimente (Frankfurt: Suhrkamp, 2004); see also the critical remarks by Alexander Kraus and Birte Kohtz, "Hirnwindungen—Quelle einer historiografischen Wende? Zur Relevanz neurowissenschaftlicher Erkenntnisse fu ̈r die Geschichtswissenschaft," Zeitschrift fu ̈r Geschichtswissenschaft (ZfG), Vol 55, No 10, 2007, pp 842–857. The following analysis cannot boast a similarly elaborate framework but may suggest one possible field of study where such concepts might prove useful. On the other hand, this essay points to the limits of the "cognitive turn" (be it psychological, neurological, or both) in regard to the availability as well as the meaningfulness of sources. Cf. Tony Kushner, "'Pissing in the wind?' The search for nuance in the study of Holocaust 'bystanders'," Journal of Holocaust Education, Vol 9, Nos 2–3, 2000, pp 57–76. One of the few exceptions was the Latvian city of Liepāja: Margers Vestermanis, "Ortskommandantur Libau. Zwei Monate deutscher Besatzung im Sommer 1941," in: Hannes Heer and Klaus Naumann (Eds.), Vernichtungskrieg. Verbrechen der Wehrmacht 1941–1944 (Hamburg: Hamburger Edition, 1995), pp 241–259. Born in 1889, Zehnpfenning had fought in World War I, subsequently joining the paramilitary Freikorps. After a failed commercial career Zehnpfenning re-entered the Reichswehr in 1934, eventually being promoted to the rank of colonel; Personal file Max Zehnpfenning, Bundesarchiv-Militärarchiv (BA-MA) Freiburg, Pers/6, No 9694. Bericht u ̈ber die Tätigkeit des Divisionsstabs in Wilna, o.D. [1941], BA-MA, RH 26-403/4a, unfol.; Maßnahmen zur Sicherung und Befriedung des Gebietes Stadt und Land Wilna, 7.7.1841, BA-MA RH 24-403/4a, unfol.; Announcements, 7.7. and 8.7.1941, Lietuvos Centrinis Valstybės Archivas (LCVA) R 677-2-91, fol. 7/8; Correspondence FK 814, 10.7.1941, LCVA R 677-1-1, fol. 57; Bericht u ̈ber Sonderaktion, 21.7.1941, LCVA R 677-2-92, fol. 11/12; for the role of the Wehrmacht in the early days of occupation in Lithuania, see also Kim C. Priemel, "Sommer 1941. Die Wehrmacht in Litauen," in: Vincas Bartusevičius, Joachim Tauber and Wolfram Wette (Eds.), Holocaust in Litauen. Krieg, Judenmorde und Kollaboration im Jahre 1941 (Köln: Böhlau, 2003), pp 26–39. For more details, see Kim C. Priemel, "Rettung durch Arbeit, Handlungsspielräume von Wehrmachtsangehörigen im Kontext des Holocausts in Vilnius, Litauen," unpublished MA thesis, University of Freiburg, 2002. Letter by Oskar Schönbrunner, December 7, 2001; Beförderungsverfu ̈gung vom 30.4.1945, Bundesarchiv, Zentrale Nachweisstelle, card index; Kurzer Bericht und Schilderung persönlicher Erlebnisse u ̈ber Rettung von Juden vor Erschießung oder Lagereinweisung, 9.8.1982, BA-MA MSg 2/2822, fol. 1. HHStA, Political CV, 30.7.1947, pp 1–4; see also Marianne Viefhaus, "Fu ̈r eine Gemeinschaft der Einsamen unter ihren Völkern. Major Karl Plagge und der Heereskraftfahrpark 562 in Vilnius," in: Wolfram Wette (Ed.), Zivilcourage. Empörte, Retter und Helfer aus Wehrmacht, Polizei und SS (Frankfurt: Fischer, 2003), pp 97–113. For more biographical details on Schmid: Manfred Wieninger and Christiane M. Pabst, "Feldwebel Anton Schmid: Retter in Wilna," in: Wolfgang Benz and Mona Körte (Eds.), Solidarität und Hilfe Vol 4, Rettung im Holocaust. Bedingungen und Erfahrungen des u ̈berlebens (Berlin: Metropol, 2001), pp 189–190. "Aktennotiz u ̈ber eine Besprechung der Staatssekretäre vom 2. Mai 1941," Der Prozeß gegen die Hauptkriegsverbrecher vor dem Internationalen Militärgerichtshof (Nu ̈rnberg 1947–49) [henceforth: IMT], Vol 31, p 84; cf. Alex J. Kay, "Germany's Staatssekretäre, mass starvation and the meeting of 2 May 1941," Journal of Contemporary History, Vol 41, No 4, 2006, pp 685–700. For critical remarks on Kay's sources see the somewhat biased response by Klaus Jochen Arnold and Gert C. Lu ̈bbers, "The meeting of the Staatssekretäre on 2 May 1941 and the Wehrmacht: a document up for discussion," Journal of Contemporary History, Vol 42, No 4, 2007, pp 613–626. Aktennotiz, IMT, Vol 31, p 84. Priemel, Rettung durch Arbeit, pp 89, 94, 101. Richtlinien fu ̈r den Einsatz der ju ̈dischen Arbeitskräfte, 30.9.1941, LCVA R 626-1-4, fol. 11/12. Yithzak Arad, Ghetto in Flames. The Struggle and Destruction of the Jews of Vilna in the Holocaust (Jerusalem: Yad Vashem, 1980), pp 41–79; Christoph Dieckmann, "Der Krieg und die Ermordung der litauischen Juden," in: Ulrich Herbert (Ed.), Nationalsozialistische Vernichtungspolitik 1939–1945. Neue Forschungen und Kontroversen (Frankfurt: Fischer, 1998), pp 292–329; Priemel, Rettung durch Arbeit, pp 46–51. For a comparison see also the Riga case study: Andrej Angrick and Peter Klein, Die "Endlösung" in Riga. Ausbeutung und Vernichtung 1941–1944 (Darmstadt: Wissenschaftliche Buchgesellschaft, 2006). See Priemel, "Sommer 1941," pp 26–39, as well as the forthcoming publication of Christoph Dieckmann's PhD thesis on the Holocaust in Lithuania (Hamburg: Hamburger Edition, 2008) which will deal extensively with the interaction of the different German authorities. Jäger's second and best-known report: Gesamtaufstellung der im Bereich des EK. 3 bis zum 1. Dez. 1941 durchgefu ̈hrten Exekutionen, 1.12.1941, Bundesarchiv Berlin (BAB) R 70 SU/15, fol. 81–89 (for a printed version see Bartusevičius et al., op cit, pp 303–311). For an analysis of the internal dynamics of the EK 3 which were crucial for scale, scope, and speed of the extermination process in Lithuania: Alexander Neumann, Petra Peckl and Kim C. Priemel, "Praxissemester Osteinsatz. Der Fu ̈hrernachwuchs der Sipo und der Auftakt zur Vernichtung der litauischen Juden," Zeitschrift fu ̈r Genozidforschung, Vol 7, 2006, pp 8–48. Verordnung Nr. 1, 2.8.1941, LCVA R 677-1-1, fol. 34; Verordnung Nr. 11 (Landrat Kreis Wilna), 21.8.1941, LCVA R 689-1-2, fol. 44; Anordnung u ̈ber die Behandlung des ju ̈dischen Vermögens im Reichskommissariat Ostland, 13.10.1941, LCVA R 614-1-3, fol. 73; Arad, op cit, pp 110/111. Gesamtaufstellung der im Bereich des EK. 3 bis zum 1. Dez. 1941 durchgefu ̈hrten Exekutionen, 1.12.1941, BAB R 70 SU/15, fol. 81–89; letter by the head of police in Wilna, 9.9.1941, in: B. Baranauskas, K. Rukšenas and E. Rozauskas (Eds.), Documents accuse (Vilnius: Gintaras, 1970), pp 217–218; Arad, op cit, pp 108–117. On Paneriai see: Rachel Margolis and Jim G. Tobias (Eds.), Die geheimen Notizen des K. Sakowicz. Dokumente zur Judenvernichtung in Ponary (Nuremberg: Antogo, 2003). Instruktion, o.D., LCVA R 1421-1-2, fol. 2; Yitshkok Rudashevski, The Vilna Ghetto Diary (Tel Aviv: Ghetto Fighter's House, 1973), p 36; Marc Dvorjetski, La Victoire du Ghetto (Paris: France-Empire, 1962), pp 58–60; Grigorij Schur, Die Juden von Wilna. Die Aufzeichnungen des Grigorij Schur 1941–1944 (Munich: dtv, 1999), pp 64–65. Later, Schönbrunner reported that he had initially employed some 500 Jewish workers. However, these data are not corroborated by contemporary sources; Interrogation Oskar Schönbrunner, 21.11.1960, Bundesarchiv Ludwigsburg (BAL) B 162/2522, fol. 7241. Statistische Angaben u ̈ber beschäftigte Inhaber der gelben und blauen Ausweise, 25.1.1942, LCVA R 626-1-209, fol. 100–102. Report by O. Schönbrunner, BA-MA MSg 2/2822, fol. 7/8, 10; Interrogation O. Schönbrunner, 12.4.1961, BAL B 162/2526, fol. 8037/8038. Report by O. Schönbrunner, BA-MA MSg 2/2822, fol. 5/6; Eidesstattliche Erklärung M. Schumelis and F. Komras [25.5.1947], Yad Vashem (YV), Department of the Righteous, M 31/1167, fol. 6; Testimony Shlomo Bernovsky, YV M 31/55, fol. 21/22. Rudashevski, Diary, September 13, 1941, pp 51, 165 (fn. 24). HHStA, Affidavit Plagge, July 30, 1947; HHStA, Affirmation Alfred Stumpff, p 2; BA-MA MSg 2/2882, fol. 6; interview with O. Schönbrunner, November 19, 2001. HHStA, Affidavit Georg Raab, 1; HHStA Affirmation Christian Bartholomae, p 1; HHStA, Affidavit Heinz Zeuner, 1; Affidavit Gita Kamenmann, 12.6.1972, BAL B 162/2576, fol. 1300; Affidavit Lidia Radokwszczyk, 3.6.1970, BAL B 162/2552, fol. illegible; Interrogation Albert Weller, 17.4.1961, BAL B 162/2626, fol. 7903; similar: Affidavit Elias Gurewicz, 15.6.1959, BAL B 162/2502, fol. 1489/1490. Affirmation, YV M 31/1167, fol. 6, 7, 58; Report by Oskar Schönbrunner, BA-MA MSg 2/2822, fol. 9/10; Interview Schönbrunner 24.11.2001. Similar efforts by Schmid to free imprisoned Jews have been reported; however, firm evidence of these actions is still lacking; see e.g. Erika Weinzierl, Zu wenig Gerechte. Österreicher und Judenverfolgung 1938–1945, 2nd ed. (Grazl: Styria, 1985), p 132. Report by Hermann Adler, YV M 31/55, fol. 70; Affidavit Bernowsky, YV M 31/55, fol. 22; Chaika Grossmann, The Underground Army. Fighters of the Bialystok Ghetto (New York: Holocaust Library, 1987), pp 34–37; Dvorjetski, Victoire, p 191. Verzeichnis der Arbeitsstellen und der dort beschäftigten ju ̈dischen Arbeitern [sic] per 27. Februar 1942, 27.2.1942; LCVA R 626-1-209, fol. 106; Aufstellung der Arbeitsstellen und der dort eingesetzten ju ̈dischen Arbeitskräfte zum 26. August 1942, 25.8.1942, LCVA R 626-1-209, fol. 43–46. Befehl des RFSS an den HSSPF Ostland und den Chef des WVHA, 21.6.1943, BAB NS 19/1740, fol. 20. In Vilnius proper, the first plans to restrict employment of Jewish labor to large work forces and limited fields of action had been contemplated as early as November 1942: KTB Wwi Kdo Kauen, 4.11.1942, BA-MA RW 30/19, fol. 14. Lagebericht 7/43 des KdS Litauen, 31.7.1943, BAB R 90/122, fol. 1484; Lagebericht 9/43 des KdS Litauen, undated, LCVA R 1399-1-62, fol. 60; Aktenvermerk u ̈ber Besprechung beim Kommandeur der Sipo und des SD, Wilna, OStuF Neugebauer, 5.8.1943, BA-MA RW 30/85, fol. 32. Abschlußbericht der Kommission zur Nachpru ̈fung des Einsatzes ziviler Arbeitskräfte bei den Wehrmachtsdienststellen in Wilna, 2.8.1943, BA-MA RW 30/85, fol. 21. Besprechung Hptm. Klipfel mit OStuF Neugebauer vom SD Wilna u ̈ber Judeneinsatz bei Wehrmachtsfertigung im Ghetto, 4.8.1943, BA-MA RW 30/85, fol. 30; Aktennotiz u ̈ber Besprechung beim Kommandeur des Wilnaer SD, OStuF Neugebauer, am 3.8.1941, BA-MA RW 30/85, fol. 31. For Neugebauer's career see his personal file in Bundesarchiv-Zwischenarchiv Dahlwitz-Hoppegarten, ZR 661A.06, fol. 47–56. Moshe Feigenberg, Wilne untern Nacy-Joch (Landsberg, 1946), pp 18, 20, 22. For the extermination process in Estonia see: Ruth-Bettina Birn, Die Sicherheitspolizei in Estland 1941–1944. Eine Studie zur Kollaboration im Osten (Paderborn: Schöningh, 2006). Schur, Juden von Wilna, 182; HHStA, Affirmation Friedrich Asmus, fol. 1; HHStA, Affidavit Georg Raab, 1; KTB Wwi Wilna, fol. 1, and BA-MA RW 30/85, fol. In the of the to the of his Plagge with the SD Plagge was and November LCVA R fol. Feigenberg, op cit, S. "The of ed. Good, Priemel, Rettung durch Arbeit, p are available at Arad, op cit, p (Ed.), of Lithuania, and Vol (New York: p "The population in Lithuania: the labor of Vilnius in: of Vol 2 (Vilnius: 1998), p und undated, LCVA R fol. 51, Aufstellung des im undated, LCVA R fol. 60; Affidavit Herbert BAL B 162/2526, fol. from Plagge to in: Good, op cit, pp Schur, Juden von Wilna, pp op cit, p November LCVA R fol. Arad, op cit, p und LCVA R fol. Affidavit Feigenberg, BAL B fol. Schur, op cit, pp from of available at Interview Martin and Interview used by of Michael D. Affidavit Feigenberg, BAL B fol. For a and account see The of The and of the Nazi (London: 2006). des vor des May in: IMT, Vol pp See Georg Geschichte der deutschen und ed. Wolfgang pp The on German labor policy and the of labor has in the for the following in Nazi University Press, pp Ulrich und des in der des 2nd ed. Dietz, 1999), pp Neue in der deutschen Die der des fu ̈r den und fu ̈r und fu ̈r und im p 30; unter dem und im und im R. des im Wehrmacht, und in: (Ed.), Deutsche und der Vol und pp Ulrich Geschichte der in 2001), pp op cit, pp Vol pp R. und in der in: (Ed.), Deutsche und der Vol und 1999), pp op cit, p Christian Die Wehrmacht und die 2nd ed. Dietz, pp pp op cit, pp For the German starvation policy see Dieckmann, op cit, pp Kay, op Christian Die und Vernichtungspolitik in 1941 bis (Hamburg: Hamburger Edition, Christian Krieg, Forschungen zur deutschen Vernichtungspolitik im (Hamburg: Hamburger Edition, Ausbeutung und in: Wolfgang (Ed.), Der and pp Bericht u ̈ber durch BA-MA RH fol. KTB Kdo Kauen, Bericht fu ̈r BA-MA RW fol. KTB In Ostland, Bericht fu ̈r BA-MA RW fol. u ̈ber IMT, Vol p Christoph has referred to these dynamics as the of one group of by for a discussion see the forthcoming publication of his PhD KTB In Ostland, Lagebericht fu ̈r den BA-MA RW fol. des des Kdo im Wilna, des Kdo Kauen, BA-MA RW Ulrich Arbeit, u ̈ber und Deutsche im 20. Jahrhundert (Frankfurt: Fischer, 1995), p The policy was by often by of cf. und im Vol No pp die Menschen Die deutschen und in den der Vol No pp KTB Kdo Kauen, BA-MA RW fol. KTB Kdo Kauen, BA-MA RW Bericht u ̈ber 1. KTB Wwi Kdo Kauen, BA-MA RW fol. der bis zum LCVA R fol. Lagebericht fu ̈r die KdS Litauen, LCVA R fol. Bericht u ̈ber 1. KTB Wwi Kdo Kauen, BA-MA RW fol. Priemel, Rettung durch Arbeit, pp Aufstellung der Arbeitsstellen und der dort eingesetzten ju ̈dischen Arbeitskräfte zum November 1942, LCVA R 626-1-209, fol. und Einsatz in J. LCVA R fol. 1. KTB Wwi Wilna, BA-MA RW fol. op cit, Vol pp von der und im Vol 13, No pp op cit, Vol pp op cit, p for the of his see the letter of Karl Plagge to 4, in: Good, op cit, p Interview with O. Schönbrunner by the author, November 19, 2001. In two other cases on a German the other a to for an of their letter by Wolfram BAL B fol. is the case of the in the of FK to the to the Jewish and a interest in the but remained within the limits of his scope of see in the Vilna Holocaust and Genocide Vol No 1, pp (fn. For rescue efforts by see the by in Lithuania during the Nazi in: During the Holocaust. of the Yad Vashem (New and Vashem, pp and Gilbert, op cit, pp M. the and the of Jews in Nazi (New and London: University Press, p 4, the into two situational and a line between and which are the same for The study was "The about who Jews from the in: J. and (Eds.), and (New York: Press, 1970), pp Cf. When the Christian of Jews in (New and Oxford University Press, and M. The Rescuers of Jews during the Holocaust (New and London: Press, Conscience Rescuers of Jews during the Holocaust (London: "The in: Michael and J. (Eds.), The Holocaust and The the the and the University Press, 2002), pp The of of during the Holocaust University Press, is The of the Rescuers of the Jews During the Holocaust Cf. David to an assessment of research on gentiles helped Vol 7, No pp who that on of rescuers for the most p For a discussion of the of the conclusions are by M. and C. to a study of situational and in Journal of and Social Vol No 1, pp For biographical details see: Priemel, Rettung durch Good, op a of his Vilnius Plagge with his letter of Karl Plagge to Plagge, and M. The He (New York: 1970), pp to the of and have been by D. and E. is the of the Journal of and Social Vol No pp has been by Rachel Levine and Collins, "The murder and the psychology of Vol No 6, 2007, pp The that the of the case, which bystander had a but on how of were and limited their heuristic and op cit, pp The of however, has two to research on the situational which the of the help is only to the with to be of or to be by M. and A. an Journal of and Social Vol 13, No 4, pp Letter from Plagge to D. 20, in: Good, op cit, pp For the impact of see pp Interrogation Albert Weller, 17.4.1961, BAL B 162/2526, fol. 7903; Affidavit Alfred Stumpff, BAL B fol. Interrogation O. Schönbrunner, 21.11.1960, BAL B 162/2522, fol. the by the which was for the murder of the Jewish population in Kollaboration und Die und die Ermordung der litauischen Juden (Frankfurt: Peter pp from HHStA, Minutes, 9.2.1948, p 2; by O. Schönbrunner, BA-MA MSg 2/2822, fol. Interrogation O. Schönbrunner, 12.4.1961, BAL B 162/2526, fol. cf. "Feldwebel Anton in

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