Turning a Chinese Kid Red

To win the hearts and minds of the Chinese people, Chinese Communist leaders launched a series of educational reforms to instill new socialist ideas and nationalistic fervor in kindergarteners immediately after the founding of the People's Republic of China in 1949. Under the strong influence of Soviet advisers and through a number of methods (games, singing, storytelling, site visits), Chinese kindergarteners were taught the nobility of labor, the sacrifice of soldiers, the grandeur of Tiananmen Square, the wise leadership of Chairman Mao Zedong, and the evilness of enemies. However, contrary to the conventional view, this article argues that Chinese education officials and kindergarten teachers never blindly followed Soviet educational models. They appropriated Moscow's techniques to suit their domestic needs, which included promoting nationalist feelings among children to consolidate the Chinese Communist Party's legitimacy and power. Ultimately, Chinese kindergarteners were turned into Party loyalists, not admirers of a foreign socialist model. Although the Party encountered difficulties in recruiting reliable teachers to implement its policies, it was able to impose nearly total control from above over the political content of kindergarten education. Under the one-party system, Chinese children were only taught what the Communist leaders wanted them to learn. Notes 1. Beijingshi jiaoyuju youjiaoke, 'Yijiuwulingnian diyi xueqi geyuan zibian jiaocai' ['Self-compiled teaching materials in kindergartens for the first semester of 1950'], Beijing Municipal Archives (hereafter BMA), 153-4-2440. 2. The two Chinese terms youzhiyuan and youeryuan, both meaning 'kindergarten', were used interchangeably by the officials and educators in the 1950s to include children from three to seven years of age. See Beijingshi jiaoyuju youjiaoke, 'Guanyu taolun youzhiyuan zanxing guicheng (cao'an) de tongzhi' ['Circular on the discussion about the temporary kindergarten regulations'], BMA, 153-4-2441. 3. Suzanne Pepper, Radicalism and Education Reform in 20th-Century China: The Search for an Ideal Development Model (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1996); Ruth Hayhoe, China's Universities, 1985–1995: A Century of Cultural Conflict (New York: Garland, 1996); Janette Ryan, ed., China's Higher Education Reform and Internationalisation (London: Routledge, 2011). 4. He Dongchang, ed., Dangdai zhongguo jiaoyu [Contemporary Chinese Education] (Beijing: Dangdai zhongguo chubanshe, 1996), vol. 1, pp. 41–51. 5. Sheila Fitzpatrick, The Commissariat of Enlightenment: Soviet Organization of Education and the Arts under Lunacharsky, October, 1917–1921 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1970); Sheila Fitzpatrick, Education and Social Mobility in the Soviet Union, 1921–1934 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1979). 6. Fred I. Greenstein, Children and Politics, revised edn (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1969), pp. 80–81; Richard W. Wilson, Learning to Be Chinese: The Political Socialization in Taiwan (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1970), pp. 51, 58. 7. Chen Lifu, Chengbai zhijian [The Memoir of Chen Lifu] (Taipei: Zhengzhong shuju, 1994), pp. 205–332; John Israel, Lianda: A Chinese University in War and Revolution (Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 1998), pp. 95–117. 8. Chen, Chengbai zhijian. 9. Pepper, Radicalism and Education Reform in 20th-Century China, pp. 118–154. 10. Gu Mingyuan, 'Lun Sulian jiaoyu lilun dui Zhongguo jiaoyu de yingxiang' ['Influence of the Soviet Union's educational theories on Chinese education'], Beijing shifandaxue xuebao (shehui kexueban) [Journal of the Beijing Normal University (Social Science Edition)] no. 1, (2004), pp. 5–13. 11.The Common Program and Other Documents of the First Plenary Session of the Chinese People's Political Consultative Conference (Peking: Foreign Languages Press, 1950), pp. 16–17. 12. 'Beijingshi zhongzhuan, zhongxiaoxue he youeryuan jiaoyu fazhan gaikuang: cankao ziliao' ['Reference documents concerning the general situation of educational development in Beijing's technical secondary schools, secondary and primary schools, and kindergartens'], BMA, 147-3-32. See also BMA, 153-4-2426. 13. Mao Zedong, 'On New Democracy', in Mao Tse-tung, Selected Worksof Mao Tse-Tung (Peking: Foreign Languages Press, 1975), vol. 2, pp. 339–384. 14. BMA, 11-1-76. 15. Zhonghua renmin gongheguo jiaoyubu jihua caiwusi, ed., Zhongguo jiaoyu chengjiu: tongji ziliao, 1949–1983 [Achievement of Education in China: Statistics, 1949–1983] (Beijing: Renmin jiaoyu chubanshe, 1984), p. 229. 16. BMA, 11-1-75. 17. BMA, 153-1-718. 18. BMA, 153-4-2441. 19. Beijingshi jiaoyuju, 'Jiaoyuju jieguan gongzuo jihua cao'an' ['Draft on the Education Bureau's plans for taking over (the control of schools)'], BMA, 153-1-2. 20. BMA, 153-1-2. 21. BMA, 153-4-2464. 22. Beijingshi jiaoyuju, 'Zuzhi jiedao youzhiyuan (youerban) cankao banfa' ['Methods for organizing street kindergartens'], BMA, 153-1-755; See also BMA, 153-1-752; BMA, 153-1-756. 23. BMA, 147-3-33; BMA, 11-1-45. 24. Beijingshi jiaoyuju, 'Gongzuozhong cunzai de wenti ji jiejue wenti de yijian' ['Existing problems in education and suggestions for their solution'], BMA, 1-23-16. 25. BMA, 8-2-694. 26. Beijingshi renmin zhengfu wenhua jiaoyu weiyuanhui, 'Sixiao jieban gongzuo jianbao' ['A brief report on taking management control of the private primary schools'], BMA, 11-1-70. 27. BMA, 11-1-45. For a list of publication regulations issued by the Beijing Municipal Education Bureau in 1954, see BMA, 153-4-32. 28. BMA, 1-6-960. 29. Qian Junrui, 'Dangqian jiaoyu jianshe de fangzhen' ['Guiding principles for building contemporary education'], Renmin jiaoyu [People's Education] 1(1), (May 1950), p. 10. 30. Cao Fu, 'Duwei pipan yinlun' ['An introduction to Dewey criticism'], Renmin jiaoyu [People's Education] 1(6), (October 1950), pp. 21–28; also Renmin jiaoyu [People's Education] 2(1), (November 1950), pp. 22–29. 31. For a number of critical articles opposing Chen Heqin, see Renmin jiaoyu [People's Education], (January 1952). 32. Chen Heqin, 'Wo dui "Huojiaoyu" de zai jiantao' ['My second self-criticism of "Live Education"'], Renmin jiaoyu [People's Education] no. 24, (April 1952), pp. 8–10. 33. BMA, 153-1-718; BMA, 153-4-1384; BMA, 153-4-2384; BMA, 151-4-2444; See also He, Dangdai zhongguo jiaoyu, p. 43. 34. Gu Mingyuan, 'Lun Sulian jiaoyu lilun dui Zhongguo jiaoyu de yingxiang', p. 6. Interview with Gu Mingyuan, 17 January 2012, Beijing Normal University, Beijing. 35. I. A. Kairov, Jiaoyuxue [Educational Pedagogy], translated by Shen Ying, Nan Zhishan et al., 2 vols (Beijing: Renmin jiaoyu chubanshe, 1952; first published in 1951), vol. 1, pp. 11, 39. 36. 'Woxiao zengpin renshi jihua' ['Plans for hiring additional personnel at our university'], Beijing Normal University Archives, President's Office, 26 (1951); 'Woxiao shisan ge xi jiaoxue dagang baobu wengao' ['Records of the teaching programs of thirteen departments at our university'], Beijing Normal University Archives, President's Office, 38 (1951). 37. Beijingshi jiaoyuju youjiaoke, 'Yijiuwulingniandu diyi xueqi gongzuo zongjie ge sili youeryuan' ['A summary report on municipal kindergartens in the first semester of 1950'], BMA, 153-4-2436; Beijingshi jiaoyuju youjiaoke, 'Ge youeryuan yijiuwulingnian dier xueqi gongzuo zongjie (yi)' ['A summary report on municipal kindergartens in the second semester of 1950 [part 1]'], BMA, 153-4-2438. 38. BMA, 153-4-2441. 39. BMA, 153-4-2441; BMA, 153-4-2088; BMA, 153-4-2438. 40. Galina, 'Sulian ertong daode pinzhi de jiaoyu' ['Education for moral character in Soviet children'], Renmin jiaoyu [People's Education] 2(3), (January 1951), pp. 41–49; Galina, 'Sulian de youer jiaoyu' ['Kindergarten education in the Soviet Union'], Renmin jiaoyu [People's Education] no. 26 (June 1952), pp. 31–37. 41. Galina, Sulian youer jiaoyu jiangzuo [Lectures on Kindergarten Education in the Soviet Union] (N.p.: Renmin jiaoyu chubanshe, 1953), p. 8. 42. Joseph J. Tobin, David Y. H. Wu and Dana H. Davidson, Preschool in Three Cultures: Japan, China, and the United States (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1989). 43. Beijingshi jiaoyuju youjiaoke, 'Youeryuan jiaocai' ['Kindergarten teaching material'], BMA, 153-4-2461. See also BMA, 153-4-2384; BMA, 153-4-2440. 44.Dingzheng xinzhuan guowen jiaokeshu [Newly Revised Chinese Language and Literature Textbook] (N.p., n.d.), vol. 6. 45. Galina, Sulian youer jiaoyu jiangzuo, p. 38. 46.Ibid., pp. 36, 38–39, 43. 47. BMA, 153-4-2461. 48. BMA, 153-4-2441. 49. Tobin et al., Preschool in Three Cultures, pp. 96–97. 50. Galina, 'Sulian de youer jiaoyu', p. 35. 51. BMA, 153-4-2461. 52. Galina, 'Sulian ertong daode pinzhi de jiaoyu', pp. 44–45. 53. BMA, 153-4-2436; BMA, 153-4-2088. 54. BMA, 153-4-2088. 55. BMA, 153-4-2088; BMA, 153-4-2436; BMA, 153-4-2461. 56. BMA, 153-4-2436; BMA, 153-4-2438. See also BMA, 153-4-2444. 57. Kairov, Jiaoyuxue, vol. 1, pp. 177–180; Galina, Sulian youer jiaoyu jiangzuo, pp. 53–54. 58. Galina, Sulian youer jiaoyu jiangzuo, pp. 14, 53. 59. Fitzpatrick, Education and Social Mobility in the Soviet Union, 27. See also BMA, 153-4-2162. 60. Galina, Sulian youer jiaoyu jiangzuo, p. 4. 61. 'Furen daxue fushu youzhiyuan xueqi gongzuo zongjie' ['A summary report of the semester work at Furen University's affiliated kindergarten'], BMA, 153-4-2438 . See also BMA, 153-4-2436. 62. BMA, 153-4-2444. 63. BMA, 153-4-2438. 64. BMA, 147-3-33. 65. BMA, 153-4-2438; BMA, 153-4-2441. 66. Kairov, Jiaoyuxue, vol. 2, pp. 103–116. 67. Galina, Sulian youer jiaoyu jiangzuo, pp. 5, 53. 68. Beijingshi jiaoyuju, 'Beijingshi shiernian lai youer jiaoyu gongzuo ji Beijingshi tigao youeryuan jiaoyu zhiliang de gongzuo qingkuang' ['On kindergarten education in Beijing during the past twelve years and the work done to improve its quality'], BMA, 153-4-2545. 69. BMA, 147-3-32; BMA, 153-1-749. 70. Liu Yu, ed., Chuxiao guoyu [Chinese Language and Literature for the Lower Primary School] (N.p., n.d.); Jin-Cha-Ji bianqu xingzheng weiyuanhui jiaoyuting, ed., Guoyu keben [Chinese Language and Literature Textbook] (N.p., 1948). 71. BMA, 153-4-2438; BMA, 153-4-2461. 72. Beijingshi jiaoyuju youjiaoke, 'Yijiusijiuniandu dier xueqi gongzuo zongjie ge sili youeryuan' ['A summary report on municipal kindergartens in the second semester of 1949'], BMA, 153-4-2427. 73. BMA, 153-4-2426. 74. BMA, 153-4-2440. 75. Beijingshi jiaoyuju youjiaoke, 'Yijiusijiunian diyi xueqi gongzuo zongjie ge sili youeryuan' ['A summary report on private kindergartens in the first semester of 1949'], BMA, 153-4-2426. 76. BMA, 153-4-2436. 77. BMA, 153-5-117. 78. BMA, 153-4-2088; BMA, 153-4-2426. 79. Greenstein, Children and Politics, p. 74. 80. Galina, 'Sulian ertong daode pinzhi de jiaoyu', p. 44. 81. BMA, 153-4-2461. 82. BMA, 153-4-2461. 83. BMA, 153-4-2436. 84. BMA, 153-4-2438. 85. BMA, 153-4-2438. 86. BMA, 153-4-2438. 87. BMA, 153-4-2436. 88. BMA, 153-4-2436. 89. BMA, 153-4-2436; BMA, 153-4-2438; BMA, 153-4-2444. 90. BMA, 153-4-2444. 91. Clifford Geertz, 'Centers, kings, and charisma: reflections on the symbolics of power', in Clifford Geertz, Local Knowledge: Further Essays in Interpretive Anthropology (New York: Basic Books, 1983), pp. 121–146; and Clifford Geertz, Negara: The Theatre State in Nineteenth-Century Bali (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1980). 92. BMA, 11-2-319. 93. BMA, 153-4-2444. 94. BMA, 153-4-2461. 95. BMA, 153-4-2440. 96. BMA, 153-4-2436. 97.Chuji xiaoxue keben yuwen dierce jiaoxue cankaoshu [Teaching References for Chinese Language and Literature in Primary Schools] (Beijing: Renmin jiaoyu chubanshe, 1955), vol. 2, p. 74. 98. BMA, 153-4-2567. 99. Wilson, Learning to Be Chinese, pp. 77–85.100. 'Deng Xiaoping yeye zhishu' ['Grandpa Deng Xiaoping plants a tree'], in Kecheng jiaocai yanjiusuo and Xiaoxue yuwen kecheng jiaocai yanjiu kaifa zhongxin, eds, Yuwen: Yinianji, xiace [Chinese: Grade One, Vol. 2] (Beijing: Renmin jiaoyu chubanshe, 2001), pp. 9–11.101.http://www.pep.com.cn/xiaoyu/jiaoshi/tbjx/jiaocan/tb1x/201103/t20110311_1026957.htm (accessed 8 June 2013).102. BMA, 153-4-2438.103. BMA, 147-3-32.104. BMA, 153-4-2440.105. BMA, 153-4-2444.106. BMA, 153-4-2436.107. 'Furen daxue fushu youzhiyuan xueqi gongzuo zongjie', BMA 153-4-2438.108. BMA, 153-4-2461.109. BMA, 153-4-2438.110. BMA, 153-4-2438.111. BMA, 153-4-2468.112. Zhonghua renmin gongheguo jiaoyubu jihua caiwusi, ed., Zhongguo jiaoyu chengjiu, p. 229; He, Dangdai Zhongguo jiaoyu, p. 57.113. See, for example, Lu Yuezhen, ed., Youer daode qimeng de lilun yu shijian [The Theory and Practice of the Moral Enlightenment of Kindergarteners] (Fuzhou: Fujian jiaoyu chubanshe, 1999), especially pp. 153–260. See also He, Dangdai Zhongguo jiaoyu, pp. 165–174.114. BMA, 1-6-960; BMA, 153-4-2444.115. BMA 11-1-70.116. BMA, 153-4-2490.117. BMA, 11-1-1; BMA, 11-1-50.118. BMA, 147-3-5; BMA, 153-4-2436; BMA, 153-4-2444.119. BMA, 153-4-2436.120. BMA, 11-1-94.121. BMA, 153-4-2444.122. BMA, 11-1-94.123. BMA, 11-1-94.124. BMA, 153-4-2444.125. BMA, 153-4-2436.126. BMA, 153-4-2426.127. BMA, 153-4-2436.128. Greenstein, Children and Politics, p. 74.129. BMA, 153-4-2436.130. BMA, 153-4-2436.131. Jacques Ellul, Propaganda: The Formation of Men's Attitudes (New York: Vintage, 1973), p. 18.132. Suzanne Pepper, China's Education Reform in the 1980s: Policies, Issues, and Historical Perspectives (Berkeley, CA: Institute of East Asian Studies, University of California, 1990), p. 38.133. Greenstein, Children and Politics, pp. 45–46.134. Wilson, Learning to Be Chinese, pp. 48, 79, 114–115.135. Tang Shu and Sun Qiying, eds, Youeryuan kecheng jiben lilun he zhengti gaige [Fundamental Theories and Comprehensive Reform of the Kindergarten Curriculum] (Nanjing: Nanjing shifandaxue chubanshe, 2010), pp. 3–10.136. Tang Shu, ed., Youeryuan kecheng yanjiu yu shijian [Study and Practice of the Kindergarten Curriculum] (Nanjing: Nanjing shifandaxue chubanshe, 2000), p. 64.137. Zhonghua renmin gongheguo jiaoyubu, Youeryuan jiaoyu zhidao gangyao (shixing) [Essential Guide to Kindergarten Education (A Trial Run)] (Beijing: Beijing shifandaxue chubanshe, 2001), pp. 1, 5

Chinese history and philosophy

• Rethinking quality in Early Childhood Education ( ECE ) from Chinese children's perspectives

  Open Access•Xiaohua Li, Wanyue Chen et al.•British Educational Research…•2026

  Add to list

• Tattling with Chinese Characteristics

  Open Access•Jing Xu•Ethos•2020

  Add to list