Religion & Democracy

Much of the world is seeing conflict between people whose views permit basing political actions and lawmaking on religious convictions and people whose democratic values oppose this. Democratic societies are in principle open to the free exercise of religion and, in constitution, they are characteristically pluralistic in both culture and religion. Religions are highly variable in their stance toward government, but many of the world's most populous religions, including Christianity and Islam, are commonly taken to embody standards of conduct, such as certain prohibitions, that cannot be endorsed by democratic governments committed to preserving liberty for the religious and the nonreligious alike. The present age is seeing much discussion of just how far religious liberty should extend in democratic societies and just what role religion should play in the conduct of citizens.The most prominent range of problems concerning the tensions between religion – or certain religions or interpretations thereof – and democracy are institutional. They concern the relations that do or should obtain between “church” and state: between religious institutions or organized religious groups and government or its agencies. Institutional matters, however, are not the only ones important for understanding the relation between religion and democracy. Ethics and political theory also extend to standards appropriate to the conduct of individual citizens. Here the ethics of citizenship, as it is now sometimes called, focuses on how individual citizens should understand the role, in civic affairs, of religious convictions, especially their own convictions about how human life should be lived. This concerns not only deciding what to support by one's votes and public advocacy, but also how to conduct civic discourse. The essays in this issue of Dædalus – most of them based on contributions to a seminar sponsored by the Australian Catholic University in March of 2019 – address both institutional questions concerning religion and democracy and the ethics of citizenship as bearing on how individuals, religious or not, may best regard their role in the political system in which they live.An entire book could be devoted to conceptual exploration of either democracy or religion. None of the essays in this issue undertakes that task, but all of them implicitly conceive religion in a way that avoids narrowness. For instance, none of the authors assumes that a religion must be theistic or that a democracy must use a particular system for selecting government officials. This is appropriate, and here the explorations of religion in relation to democracy apply to all the commonly accepted instances of both religion and democracy. One minimal assumption about democracy shared by the authors is that the term properly applies only where political offices are held on the basis of free elections. It is more difficult to identify a minimal assumption about religion that is comparably shared. But an important assumption for the question of how a given religion is related to democracy is that it has an ethic: a set of standards indicating how one is to live. This assumption holds for the religions that have been and continue to be central in discussions concerning democratic governance. It holds for all the various religions referred to in the essays included here, and its importance is evident throughout the volume.Stating the ethic of a religion is often very difficult. Even if it seems explicitly stated in scripture, the relevant texts are likely to exhibit ineliminable vagueness. It has often been noted, to be sure, that “Do unto others as you would have them do unto you” has equivalent or roughly equivalent forms in many religions; but it is highly vague. So is “Love your neighbor as yourself,” which appears in (among other religious sources) both the Hebrew and the Christian testaments of the Bible. It is also true that there is no sharp distinction between ethical and religious directives, such as those prescribing certain rituals. Even where their content is overtly religious, however, directives enshrined in a religion have normative authority for its practitioners. For at least the orthodox practitioners of certain kinds of religion, it is wrong to act otherwise and to do so is criticizable or even punishable. Some religious directives – arguably all those that are genuinely moral – are meant to apply to everyone, including people outside the religion. This holds for the prohibitions of killing, lying, and theft that are prominent in many religions.Inevitably, there will be conflicts between what, for some religions, is obligatory or impermissible and what, for some democratic governments, may not be enforced or prohibited. Prohibitions of divorce and abortion are examples, since both are considered morally wrong in some religions and a legal right in some democracies. These conflicts raise two important kinds of questions: first, institutional questions about what laws and practices should bind government and, second, individual questions about what we, as citizens not holding public office, should support, either through persuading dissenters to join us or through voting for laws requiring their conformity to the standard.So far, one might think that the relation between religion and democracy is important only because conflicts are inevitable. That is not so. But is religion of special concern for democratic societies for any similarly important reasons? There are at least three kinds of consideration indicating that it is.Suppose we the that democracy is a of government that as it in the the by the for the the here is in any democratic government must the people in a that about their This is it about their It also concerns their of the is by the minimal of the of the people in question here, but support of at least minimal of certain public and of the for free are we to this that many people to be of their of it appears evident that of religious liberty may be of special concern for a This is not to that only religion have this That seems a But – at least if – have the role in one's of that religion has for those are genuinely This is most evident where the religion in question has an ethic and, a of the consideration a special for religion in democracy concerns its role, by its for Institutional religions are and often in the that they and for their by groups of Some religions to be sure, in their authority but even those or a of or governance. This and the in or one's and or may be to some and they other civic and consideration is that religious institutions – and based and – be a to the of the They also be a of that to and values that might not otherwise be or given religions have sometimes been by they have also sometimes been government, institutional and conformity to ethics and political many of the but where democratic governments are – properly – religious in their it is not difficult for government to or normative that may be by religious citizens in civic One issue here is the content of public is the basis and appropriate of religious to of to of that a special concern religion is in democracy. But the do support a for that concern in the world as we have it since the of democracy and, so far as one are likely to it in the should be however, of nonreligious of life that may have or a in democratic we should in that of liberty and the of citizenship should be for both the religious and the But here, as in the of to in the religious be the basis on which the for liberty is is an of what is often considered a of based should not more to based to what would otherwise be a enforced should they to all of of as a human right that but we should not should democracy that there is a special – it is or – that has moral authority in its own moral may or or not it on a of right to views of own of they a moral that a a or a religious held in to however, what we may do – or be – on the basis of This us to the of the of liberty in democratic us what a democracy should at least the however, the by in in one of the most relation to religion and a of this might be the liberty should religious liberty to the a of the in and not just religious is a in any for such as the to of this religious liberty principle is one a in democratic or liberty principle is not the only important for relations in democratic government that the liberty principle may religions at least in an This is commonly taken to be for if at and there is of an This principle that government must religions The principle as as or of any religion or in a democratic whose citizens do or would of such such a principle as it in democratic The of the for the principle on the and of the in of relevant either the liberty principle the principle cannot be considered here, but in both democracy and religion are if the liberty principle is an principle to the that government should religions are not if a religion practices human or human These not only but also liberty This is an that the liberty principle is a on the of the as the principle may be on the religions not toward religion. democratic societies should religions it not that they toward religion. for the religious the for instance, in or public would be there is a for a to the that government should not the religious as such to the as is commonly to public for religious institutions but not for but it not for religious institutions so as the of religion and democracy not just to standards for in relation to religion but also to normative standards appropriate for religious institutions that to a of citizenship in a democratic if the should not the is there a the in the This is a It cannot be that moral and moral and are outside the of religion – and of the kinds of the liberty principle must – and government that and free – and, in public on and their moral here is meant to that moral views are political interpretations of the democratic governments should not moral views by that the free of and this to free and given the of moral views political democratic governments cannot and for their moral political in the by for office, government may by but the liberty principle free even in of this concerning democracy not in the least oppose the that ethics in relation to here is that not should be that not the and of the could life to toward one that is far often by legal conduct that or morally of the or in and For much of legal of is not the of how ethics may oppose or what must this in the political is a the that it is morally wrong to in that not people to for since that the of legal to the use of public that may people for or as a that in moral also not that those the should a political on it as in to political you on this issue may your on other of at least importance to The here is that moral in many in political and, especially taken in may or may not a political The moral right of free but it open how citizens should exercise that right in relation to political Here have both liberty as and as of a role that set on their These two but the to exercise moral be or political directives to and others in must exercise their at the a of how religion and democracy should be related much open the ethics of the standards appropriate to citizens in their conduct, where their religious convictions some citizens central question here is what kinds of citizens in should as a basis of political and, for votes laws or public that Some most in many of standards of political is this this its by a more principle for and may properly their more views and are not at have it difficult to what should public but there is no that – both in and in much the term in or political theory more – public a of and not on either religion or some particular or theory and, is by standards appropriate to and of a is also in of not but it is to that it the of such religions as the of and It not that are in in a they do not embody to highly standards of conduct, such as standards for and has the in many The to this they their that the of public as might be by a ethical texts to of a in nonreligious such as on in the to a of the what a of an that be in public in at least at any that in public given by a political are to support the are to and by in some most is how such of this principle is in sometimes religious convictions to and on content or The principle however, a that shared cannot the relevant and it that in of This both on the for to be in a way that will the public and that public be for what might be on the basis of other kinds of The question how far – if at all – would lawmaking that is by religious and not by more on basing political on religious is that citizens may they three kinds of that might not have any for a – the of political their some as one might that and in the of political discussion and in political as its will much that other would more But open that there are kinds of religious that might be an appropriate basis for lawmaking no those of this it to a principle in the ethics of citizenship that is more some by but and even if only have a that has some all of those but they do not principle of it also be principle of to even if are they not be in a and – on the – they standards of what has been It is both by that are properly to the of the as what is or and and by of the and kinds in both and This principle of a of civic principle has been and should be is one that not for its normative on religion or but it may of a religious in in the of and a right of free That and are wrong is the moral of many religions and of an ethics in here is not to be in of as an to have that is but not be The term The a to the act in question if there is no of at least but a is not and be only a to religious could on This could to more is that the in question is a right to act There however, it may be wrong to exercise a for no even one to do so and has no The principle of is meant to the range of legal likely in a that by the and it should be by the ethics of citizenship, by The principle a of moral of citizens as but their liberty them to the have a normative to their as may have a to but the ethical in question is that of civic and for not the of we may religious a the of if not the of the principle of is that of “Do unto not that of not principle of is this for also it for to it in no way religious or It not citizens to that such political even that religious cannot be The is that some set of for a or public be both and This is not a on the content of civic It may be an of to both one's religious and one's the to be about one and the to others that one's not on standards they do not or may not but on as some shared all be sure, in for a or we are not about we are if we are not by those one only the but is for instance, a religious or of some would – for one's for of This seems but of one's one's – even lawmaking is at – is to the for in the some of democratic it is more important that there be for laws that liberty most laws that they be on the basis of appropriate even that oppose one may in support of a or that is by that no one has and, the may of the or But such a is not support by cannot be to be by and its may be by the that to its should that the principle of not of The relation between for and voting not be and what we in political is not to much to only It is a of just how much of one's religious or not, should be in for laws or public some religious convictions public discussion or political would be in other this may be to that a a religious important in the of the of an for a or public will be but applies to other including that of democracy and to to such as and the might that of a that an or based on it is but this is of It to of the of the people the importance of and public and is But even in there will be to be by for one or which are is a for any political essays that views and They are far to permit but what will some of the they and some they Some is a of of has and in and a focuses on the as central not this concern that of the both and free exercise questions concerning religion and democracy. the and free exercise in the this to the of toward religion that the that will more free about religion if they understand that the government will not or them based on their a of bearing on the and free exercise how that there are no on free and that the two as where are even if may be as a certain of is how public do to the importance of religion as a of of religious also a on the ethics of citizenship as to religious citizens in their political Here both the of their on religious in certain and the range of instances in which some on those is not on of religious practices is similarly It of both the democratic to religious liberty where no is and the exercise of religion where it for that would a of in democratic both government and individual citizens should the of religious in political normative is that of public roughly as that is by but and in the of the to to the way in which that for toward religion and, for individual a of to public in Here as as is a for of free and citizens and of the all liberty and the that should political in relation to theory as the of political values for religious appropriate but also the role that based normative standards may have in laws and public to as by such religious as is public but based to the for instance, is toward religion is by political but toward it is and The distinction between toward religion and toward it is not commonly and both it in and it to on democratic of religion as by of that are by as legal of a that is more that to other or of of religion such as its the of religious the of moral and to act or that of the in question an set of an that or this – in or outside government – as a to to public many democratic address the role of religion in and political conduct, how toward religion, as a even both public and political of the is a to the essays just and their to of religious the not of political religious But a of legal may have their own most of its its of to and its to think in of the the of Here the for as a way to to to a in understanding religious liberty and its a of civic that a for in democratic the that is on regard for one and on concerning the of For civic especially in the of role are and in those civic seems a more and more legal of that the of the as for the of the and for the – or as – of religion. a in but also that religious One of such is a in the between the of and only of between and public also of a for instance, to a to an in no religious and other the it appears evident that the of in many of public life may be as a that the of religious in and to be a the that may be as legal democratic theory must address their as for religious This issue is central for in One assumption is how religious liberty might be to they such as they own or institutions in which they other both the that liberty right of an individual to the and the that an to do such as a to all its and related are we that – by for a legal right to for one in – cannot be given the such have in individual The issue is even more a by as of an such as in a conflicts a of other individuals, for by that or of a such as a right to that it to is a of in democratic The is that public may about religion, as in it may not in a religion. for in that so as are such as in ethics may on religion in the a a democratic government may religious for those identify as to an religion. in to the public system but to have For one – in their best forms – be as of democracy and the But also that religion cannot be This on the that public should about religion any in the relevant religions are since not just any religion properly in the and how the of of any one of the that the system is not the only one that may in public about religion. that have it religion the of public is not the the for democratic of is a commonly right by any democracy. But what is Here many one which such as it is a of moral and that may of also be a the is a that has a and role, and us in various Here is one whose how the wrong a is as a we in a on and and we to we to is in this These of of questions about the of based or that to be but not not explicitly to or any standards for of but that only be by the it that the is a that to be on a religious basis are no to this of human is an of many democratic and an in the of democracy. There is of about just what are but of religion is the least is but would that the liberty whose exercise not others many of religious Here “Do a – which focuses on the of – is highly that the is so of no basis for the in on the one people may or in any not such as the right to a religion even if they have in some way to it and, on the other the right of a to conformity the not as in some other religions, there are some in which might that there is a right to act to an but that the issue for of the not that it the of to their religion, but that it their has no basis in to the to religious question is to some of the of the human are and, any of governments as such the of the to governments are difficult question not by any of the essays in this issue is any religion is by its or or by in other to a of democracy and its role one of the essays practitioners of a religion, here toward views of the relation between religion and democracy. both and related One of is that of citizens of a democracy as and and on the basis of the and of all human to of the of the of the the political of you a moral to for the the the and the are in not this as in the of toward religion, which toward religion, however, not that citizens or otherwise values and that might be to how people understand and and how they understand what Here the for the on political in a of that to it is important that people and of This open both the of religious liberty government must and the kinds of citizens may as a basis for but the on seems the and the of and a range of religious by two of essays considered so far concern the theory of democracy in relation to religion and the has been on appropriate standards this relation in democracies. how religion be relevant to democracy in a that is or some other toward democratic Here the question as some have is an in such this not all even be in many such cannot be all their be if a is to be a that many may as important for is an by certain religions and in only the support of religious or that has been a of a of those for and the basis for in an institutional But also the of an those in an and that they in as it a could support an a moral the authority to a some this of authority may be to toward democracy. Here religious have a prominent role in the moral authority of such people a of individual and not on their has been considered a but it has also been as to a of that may be to democracy as as to on both in as democracy and in that it be to be of one's not an or stance toward one's as a legal or institutional of and of and the moral of as it to support the and a also at least the religions, that we should at the for at the of the and Islam, at the on to the is the very both the including and the the to in this by more one people and is the stance here The views moral as both morally and the values that democracy in particular and their in and other of relation between religion and democracy is and it has for of religion and for particular of democracy. Religions in their ethical standards and in the political of their in their to moral political citizens in their religious and, they are religious or not, in their toward religion. in the and that their and legal for political theory is to standards that both democracy and religion and the of their This has institutional in and a of and It also a of in standards in the ethics of citizenship for The is difficult even where there is on religious liberty as a right that must and even this is to toward the religious and the nonreligious alike. But the of the is by a of of between religious and democratic It is also by of for of conflicts that between and and, at the of the civic and political conduct of individual both in their public life and their The essays here are as contributions to this

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