Sean Nicholson‐crotty
Biographic Data
| ID | 4372010 |
|---|---|
| NAME | Sean Nicholson‐crotty |
| GIVEN NAMES | Sean |
| FAMILY NAME | Nicholson‐crotty |
| SIGNATURE | CROTTY S N |
| AFFILIATIONS | University of Missouri |
| ORCID | 0000-0003-2297-6939 |
| VERIFIED | Yes |
| TOTAL WORKS | 56 |
| TOTAL CITATIONS | 1158 |
| AUTHOR COUNT | 56 |
| EDITOR COUNT | 0 |
| FIRST PUBLICATION YEAR | 2002 |
| LATEST PUBLICATION YEAR | 2025 |
| H-INDEX | 18 |
Bridging the gap
For more than forty years, giants in the field have argued that the study of policing can deepen our understanding of key concepts in the policy process literature. Despite this, there remains a noticeable gap in policy‐driven policing research. This article revisits that gap—not solely to integrate policing into policy process research, but to show how policing subsystems offer unique opportunities for researchers to test and refine core policy …
Social Identity and Cooperative Behavior by Public Administrators
Scholars suggest that coproduction may exacerbate inequity in the delivery of services because citizens with high need may have fewer resources to commit to the process. We explore whether differences between administrators and citizens might also contribute to such inequities. We use Social Identity Theory to develop the expectation that administrators may have a greater affinity for and are more willing to work with in-group members in the copr…
Police unions and use‐of‐force reforms in American cities
Following the murder of George Floyd, there was widespread debate about the policies that govern the use of force by police, but municipal leaders suggested that police unions kept many of the proposed changes from being adopted. Although there is anecdotal and scholarly evidence that unions frequently oppose policing reform, the limited literature in this area actually offers somewhat mixed conclusions about the relationship between union streng…
Symbolic Representation, Expectancy Disconfirmation, and Citizen Complaints Against Police
The theory of symbolic representation expects that citizens will view the actions of government as more legitimate when administrators share their characteristics. Although there is support for this assertion in some service areas, the evidence in policing is mixed. We draw on Expectancy Disconfirmation Theory to develop the expectation that policing is an area where we may be unlikely to see a positive relationship between representation and pos…
Creating Guardians or Warriors? Examining the Effects of Non-Stress Training on Policing Outcomes
High-profile fatal police shootings of persons of color in recent years have led some to propose changes in the ways that police officers are trained to reduce violence in interactions between officers and citizens. This article explores the impact of a non-stress-oriented training model that some police academies have adopted as an alternative to traditional militaristic training models. We integrate multiple theoretical perspectives to develop …
Are public managers more risk averse? Framing effects and status quo bias across the sectors
Modern reforms meant to incentivize public managers to be more innovative and accepting of risk are often implicitly based in the longstanding assumption that public employees are more risk averse than their private sector counterparts. We argue, however, that there is more to learn about the degree to which public and private managers differ in terms of risk aversion. In order to address this gap, we field a series of previously validated experi…
Why do countries emulate each others’ policies? A global study of renewable energy policy diffusion
When Law Enforcement Pays
The billions of dollars in assets seized by law enforcement each year represent a crucial source of revenue for these organizations, but also raise important constitutional questions and can create significant tensions within the jurisdictions they administer. Research on asset forfeiture to date has focused heavily on municipal police, largely neglecting forfeiture activities by sheriffs. Thus, it has missed an important opportunity to build the…
Moving beyond theories of neighborly emulation
Information Exchange and Policy Adoption Decisions in the Context of U.S. State Energy Policy
A persistent question in the literature on policy adoption and diffusion focuses on the ways in which jurisdictions gather policy information. Decades of research have offered numerous conclusions regarding knowledge transfer mechanisms assumed to drive diffusion. While important, we suggest that the characteristics of existing work may have limited what we know about the exchange of policy information among peers. Most studies infer learning ind…
The Consequences of Legislative Term Limits for Policy Diffusion
Policy diffusion scholarship has long sought to understand when lawmakers will imitate innovations adopted by other jurisdictions and when they actually invest the time and resources necessary to learn about potential policies. We develop the theoretical rationale that term limits will reduce the incentive and capacity of state legislatures to gather information about policies available from previous adoptions in other states. We hypothesize that…
Types of coproduction and differential effects on organizational performance
A growing body of literature explores the process of coproduction by citizens and government employees in providing goods and services, yet research that attempts to link coproduction to organizational performance offers contradictory findings. It is possible that these conflicting results are a consequence of trying to compare distinct categories of coproduction. This study identifies types of coproduction, classified by which organizational tas…
Will More Black Cops Matter? Officer Race and Police‐Involved Homicides of Black Citizens
In response to police‐involved homicides of black citizens in Ferguson, Missouri, and elsewhere, some have suggested that more black police officers could reduce the number of these events. The authors offer an empirical test of this assertion. The literature offers conflicting expectations: some studies suggest that increased representation reduces discrimination, while others suggest that it increases discrimination. The authors reconcile these…
Adoption, reinvention and amendment of renewable portfolio standards in the American states
It has long been recognised that interstate diffusion of policy innovations is comprised of distinct decisions including adoption, reinvention and amendment. Interstate influences are an important driver of these diffusion processes, but studies to date have not investigated the degree to which external influences vary across these decisions. We theorise that geographical peers will have the largest impact in adoption decisions; that ideological …
Effectiveness, Implementation, and Policy Diffusion
Policy learning has been one of the primary mechanisms by which policy innovations are assumed to diffuse from one jurisdiction to another. Recent research suggests, however, that learning is more than simply observing policy adoption in other jurisdictions and must also include an assessment of the outcomes or effectiveness of those policies. This article argues that an assessment of the ability to implement an innovation is also likely to be a …
Performance and Management in the Public Sector
Research has demonstrated that management influences the performance of public organizations, but almost no research has explored how the success or failure of a public organization influences the decisions of those who manage it. Arguing that many decisions by public managers are analogous to risky choice, the authors use a well‐validated model of relative risk aversion to understand how such choices are influenced by managers’ perceptions of or…
Policy Diffusion and the Pro-innovation Bias
Existing research on policy diffusion focuses almost exclusively on “successes” where many jurisdictions adopted the policy or policies under examination. Some have speculated that this “pro-innovation bias” compromises scholars’ ability to draw valid inferences about the factors that influence the diffusion process. We argue that the study of interstate compacts in the United States provides an analytic opportunity to assess whether these concer…
Partisanship and tax competition in the American states
Existing research identifies partisan differences in taxing choices made by state governments. Research has also found that, even when controlling for intrastate characteristics such as party, jurisdictions respond to the taxing decisions of their neighbours, particularly when citizens can easily cross-border shop. These studies treat political and competitive factors as independent influences on taxes. We suggest they are more likely to interact…
Disentangling the Causal Mechanisms of Representative Bureaucracy
Scholars have suggested that the benefits of representative bureaucracy arise from bureaucrats acting in the interests of clients who share their characteristics, increased diversity encouraging even nonminority bureaucrats work to further the interests of minority clients, and/or the actions of clients that are more responsive to bureaucrats that share their characteristics. Despite decades of research, the literature has been unable to empirica…
Politics, Capacity, and Pass-Through Decisions in the American States
State governments have considerable discretion regarding when they use federal grants to deliver goods and service themselves and when they pass those grants through to fund service delivery by local governments, nonprofit organizations, and other substate entities. This discretion influences the expenditure, and potentially the impact, of many billions of dollars every year. Unfortunately, we know very little about the decisions states make rega…
Blue Ribbon” Commissions, Interest Groups, and the Formulation of Policy in the American States
Capacity, Guidance, and the Implementation of the American Recovery and Reinvestment Act
Programs administered by the U.S. Department of Energy under the American Recovery and Reinvestment Act ( ARRA ) of 2009 were designed to spur investment in clean energy and jump‐start the economy. There was considerable variation, however, in the proportion of obligated funds that states spent during each year. A primary goal of the ARRA was to infuse as much money as possible into the struggling economy; however, there was significant variation…
Policy Innovativeness and Interstate Compacts
Are someAmerican states inherently more innovative than others? This question has confounded researchers for more than four decades. In this study we develop a measure of collective policy innovation that measures formal cooperative policy arrangements among the states, compare the measure to existing measures of internal state policy innovation, and assess whether existing innovativeness measures explain policy cooperation among the states. This…
Leaving Money on the Table
Recent years have been marked by high-profile refusals of federal grant aid by state governments. These refusals raise several questions. First, is there anything new here? Second, does partisanship alone explain these decisions? And finally, do the explanations for recent decisions provide insights into state behavior over the longer term? This article reviews state refusals of federal money over the past fifty years, explores the degree to whic…
Claiming Credit in the U.S. Federal System
Based on the assumption that lawmakers can only claim credit for public goods they produce, models of intergovernmental political competition predict that states with less ability to pay for public goods will respond more favorably to the price effect of federal grants. We offer the alternative assumption that confusion over proper credit assignment allows state lawmakers to claim credit for federal production. This produces the expectation that …
Ideology and Learning in Policy Diffusion
Scholarly research on the diffusion of policies across state governments focuses predominantly on the pathways of information between the states. Absent from this research is a thorough discussion of the content of the information state governments use when deciding whether or not to adopt an innovative policy. Given the importance of information in decision making, we develop a model that focuses attention on one type of information, namely, the…
The Politics of Diffusion
Numerous studies have investigated the diffusion of public policies, often focusing on the ways in which learning among governments influences that process. We know relatively little, however, about those policies that diffuse very rapidly, rather than in the familiar S-shaped distribution associated with policy learning, or about what causes variation in temporal diffusion patterns. This study focuses on policy characteristics as a way to develo…
Size Doesn't Matter
Despite the bias against such studies in our discipline, we argue that research designs focusing on a single state are sometimes preferable to those employing data from all 50 states. Single state studies are appropriate when the researcher wishes to generalize to a unit of analysis other than the states themselves, when conditions in a given state provide a unique opportunity for the most rigorous test of a hypothesis, and when the measurement a…
Public Management and Organizational Performance
Investigating the impact of management on performance in public organizations is a key challenge for public administration. To that end, we apply to a national sample of law enforcement agencies a recently developed formal model of public management. The model frames a set of specific expectations about the management-performance relationship. The study estimates the impacts of both internally- and externally-oriented managerial activities on a s…
Disentangling the Causal Mechanisms of Representative Bureaucracy
Scholars have suggested that the benefits of representative bureaucracy arise from bureaucrats acting in the interests of clients who share their characteristics, increased diversity encouraging even nonminority bureaucrats work to further the interests of minority clients, and/or the actions of clients that are more responsive to bureaucrats that share their characteristics. Despite decades of research, the literature has been unable to empirica…
Effectiveness, Implementation, and Policy Diffusion
Policy learning has been one of the primary mechanisms by which policy innovations are assumed to diffuse from one jurisdiction to another. Recent research suggests, however, that learning is more than simply observing policy adoption in other jurisdictions and must also include an assessment of the outcomes or effectiveness of those policies. This article argues that an assessment of the ability to implement an innovation is also likely to be a …
Policy Diffusion and the Pro-innovation Bias
Existing research on policy diffusion focuses almost exclusively on “successes” where many jurisdictions adopted the policy or policies under examination. Some have speculated that this “pro-innovation bias” compromises scholars’ ability to draw valid inferences about the factors that influence the diffusion process. We argue that the study of interstate compacts in the United States provides an analytic opportunity to assess whether these concer…
Bureaucratic Representation, Distributional Equity, and Democratic Values in the Administration of Public Programs
Work on bureaucratic representation suggests that minority citizens benefit when the programs that serve them are administered by bureaucrats with similar characteristics. This literature has not sufficiently dealt with the long-standing concern that minority benefits may come at the expense of citizens from other groups, which some critics argue makes representative bureaucracy irreconcilable with democratic values. This article suggests distrib…
Dynamic Representation(s)
Goal Conflict and Fund Diversion in Federal Grants to the States
Researchers using fiscal choice models have had limited success predicting fund diversion in federal grant programs. The application of a principal‐agent framework to questions of fiscal federalism offered a potentially valuable alternative approach, but the traditional model employed by Chubb (1985) neglected potential variability in the degree of goal conflict between principals and agents. This article proposes an expanded framework, which inc…
Adoption, reinvention and amendment of renewable portfolio standards in the American states
It has long been recognised that interstate diffusion of policy innovations is comprised of distinct decisions including adoption, reinvention and amendment. Interstate influences are an important driver of these diffusion processes, but studies to date have not investigated the degree to which external influences vary across these decisions. We theorise that geographical peers will have the largest impact in adoption decisions; that ideological …
Leaving Money on the Table
Recent years have been marked by high-profile refusals of federal grant aid by state governments. These refusals raise several questions. First, is there anything new here? Second, does partisanship alone explain these decisions? And finally, do the explanations for recent decisions provide insights into state behavior over the longer term? This article reviews state refusals of federal money over the past fifty years, explores the degree to whic…
Exploring the Impact of School Discipline on Racial Disproportion in the Juvenile Justice System
It is widely recognized that African‐American youth are significantly overrepresented in many juvenile justice systems relative to their population percentages. Research has also determined that similar disproportion exists in school discipline and speculated about a “school‐to‐prison pipeline” for minority youth. Objective. This study explores empirically the degree to which disciplinary decisions made in schools can help to explain observed rat…
Why do countries emulate each others’ policies? A global study of renewable energy policy diffusion
Industry Strength and Immigrant Policy in the American States
Despite the negative rhetoric surrounding the immigration issue, recent policy in many states has provided significant benefits to both legal and undocumented immigrants. Previous scholarship on state-level immigrant policy suggests that differences in the degree of public animosity toward this group may help to explain variation in state policy, but that work largely neglects the influence that industries that employ immigrants may have on state…
The Politics and Administration of Privatization
Shrinking budgets and the emergence of “new public management” and other market‐based reforms have put increasing pressure on many governments and government agencies to use contracting as a means of service delivery. This essay suggests that contracting should be viewed as a multistage affair, in which both political and administrative actors make key decisions at different stages of the process. It also hypothesizes that these actors weigh the …
Management, Law, and the Pursuit of the Public Good in Public Administration
The tension between managerialism and legalism in public administration has been a recurring theme at Minnowbrook conferences. This tension, increasingly evident in the literature, is couched in the often-conflicting values of efficiency and performance, on one hand, and legal and democratic values such as accountability, equality, and transparency, on the other hand. Building on conversations we began at Minnowbrook III, we specify a three-part …
Reexamining the Institutional Effects of Term Limits in U.S. State Legislatures
Research on term limits suggests that they have substantial consequences for the power of legislatures vis‐à‐vis the executive and interest groups and for the relationship between leaders and rank‐and‐file members within a chamber. Existing work, however, has not accounted for the actual power of relevant state actors. We contribute to this research by examining the effect of term limits on the influence of institutional actors conditional on the…
Information Exchange and Policy Adoption Decisions in the Context of U.S. State Energy Policy
A persistent question in the literature on policy adoption and diffusion focuses on the ways in which jurisdictions gather policy information. Decades of research have offered numerous conclusions regarding knowledge transfer mechanisms assumed to drive diffusion. While important, we suggest that the characteristics of existing work may have limited what we know about the exchange of policy information among peers. Most studies infer learning ind…
Fiscal Federalism and Budgetary Tradeoffs in the American States
Despite the massive scale of state-level budgeting, there currently exists no theoretically grounded and empirically sound examination of budgetary tradeoffs at this level of government. In order to provide such an examination, we extend a well-accepted approach to tradeoffs at the federal level in order to accommodate the unique intergovernmental aspects of state-level budgeting. We develop expectations that need for a good, ideology of state-le…
Bureaucratic Competition in the Policy Process
Recent scholarship has emphasized the important role that strategic bureaucratic actors play in the formulation of public policy. This study builds on that research by exploring the ways in which agencies strategically compete with one another over the content and character of public policy. Using insights from the literature that explicitly models bureaucratic competition, the study adapts an existing model of policymaking in subsystems to gener…
Crime and Punishment
The incarceration rate in federal penitentiaries has tripled in the past twenty-five years, marking an unprecedented incursion by the federal government into what was the near exclusive domain of sub-national jurisdictions. Numerous scholars, particularly outside the field of political science, have hypothesized about the causes of the burgeoning prison population; but few have systematically tested these propositions. Borrowing insights from org…
Disparate Measures
Over the past two decades, many studies have investigated the scope and significance of performance measurement in public organizations. Nonetheless, there is more to learn about the challenges facing public managers who want to measure organizational outputs and use the feedback to improve performance. Specifically, managers are often faced with redundant measures of the same output, each of which may be preferred by a different political princi…
Multilevel governance and organizational performance
Research on governance has extensively explored the complex interactions of governmental, nongovernmental, and for‐profit entities in the execution of public policy. It has consistently failed, however, to model empirically the joint effects of political and bureaucratic actors in governance systems. To address this issue, a theory of multilevel governance built upon the foundation of representative bureaucracy was developed and tested. Results f…
Claiming Credit in the U.S. Federal System
Based on the assumption that lawmakers can only claim credit for public goods they produce, models of intergovernmental political competition predict that states with less ability to pay for public goods will respond more favorably to the price effect of federal grants. We offer the alternative assumption that confusion over proper credit assignment allows state lawmakers to claim credit for federal production. This produces the expectation that …
Size Doesn't Matter
Despite the bias against such studies in our discipline, we argue that research designs focusing on a single state are sometimes preferable to those employing data from all 50 states. Single state studies are appropriate when the researcher wishes to generalize to a unit of analysis other than the states themselves, when conditions in a given state provide a unique opportunity for the most rigorous test of a hypothesis, and when the measurement a…
Crime and Punishment
Multilevel governance and organizational performance
Research on governance has extensively explored the complex interactions of governmental, nongovernmental, and for‐profit entities in the execution of public policy. It has consistently failed, however, to model empirically the joint effects of political and bureaucratic actors in governance systems. To address this issue, a theory of multilevel governance built upon the foundation of representative bureaucracy was developed and tested. Results f…
Crime and Punishment
The incarceration rate in federal penitentiaries has tripled in the past twenty-five years, marking an unprecedented incursion by the federal government into what was the near exclusive domain of sub-national jurisdictions. Numerous scholars, particularly outside the field of political science, have hypothesized about the causes of the burgeoning prison population; but few have systematically tested these propositions. Borrowing insights from org…
Goal Conflict and Fund Diversion in Federal Grants to the States
Social Construction and Policy Implementation
Objectives. This article develops and tests a concise multi‐stage approach for assessing the impact of social construction on the implementation of public programs designed to benefit negatively constructed groups. The framework suggests that negative constructions lead to policy choices that create problems in the implementation process. These problems prevent the accomplishment of key subobjectives necessary for ultimate program success. Method…
The Politics and Administration of Privatization
Shrinking budgets and the emergence of “new public management” and other market‐based reforms have put increasing pressure on many governments and government agencies to use contracting as a means of service delivery. This essay suggests that contracting should be viewed as a multistage affair, in which both political and administrative actors make key decisions at different stages of the process. It also hypothesizes that these actors weigh the …
Interest Group Influence on Managerial Priorities in Public Organizations
Theoretical and normative studies by both public management scholars and political scientists have long suggested that interest groups have a nontrivial degree of influence over decision making in public organizations. This study contributes to this previous research by developing specific expectations about conditions under which such influence should be greater or lesser and by testing those expectations in an analysis of over 500 top-level pub…
Public Management and Organizational Performance
Investigating the impact of management on performance in public organizations is a key challenge for public administration. To that end, we apply to a national sample of law enforcement agencies a recently developed formal model of public management. The model frames a set of specific expectations about the management-performance relationship. The study estimates the impacts of both internally- and externally-oriented managerial activities on a s…
Goal Conflict and Fund Diversion in Federal Grants to the States
Researchers using fiscal choice models have had limited success predicting fund diversion in federal grant programs. The application of a principal‐agent framework to questions of fiscal federalism offered a potentially valuable alternative approach, but the traditional model employed by Chubb (1985) neglected potential variability in the degree of goal conflict between principals and agents. This article proposes an expanded framework, which inc…
Ideology and Learning in Policy Diffusion
Scholarly research on the diffusion of policies across state governments focuses predominantly on the pathways of information between the states. Absent from this research is a thorough discussion of the content of the information state governments use when deciding whether or not to adopt an innovative policy. Given the importance of information in decision making, we develop a model that focuses attention on one type of information, namely, the…
Managing upward, downward and outward
It is particularly difficult, but also valuable, to try to estimate the relative contributions of different managerial functions to the outcomes of public programs. Building from a formal treatment of public management and performance, this study explores this research task with empirical analyses of several hundred public organizations and their top managers over a five-year period. Using Moore's distinction among managing upward toward politica…
The Many Faces of Span of Control
As an extension of the existing literature on span-of-control relationships, we propose that public bureaucracies are typically faced with multiple goals creating potential conflicts due to structural choices. In other words, optimal span of control for one goal may not be optimal for another. Findings from an analysis of nearly 600 public bureaucracies provide some evidence that structural changes designed to improve performance on one goal may …
Bureaucratic Competition in the Policy Process
Recent scholarship has emphasized the important role that strategic bureaucratic actors play in the formulation of public policy. This study builds on that research by exploring the ways in which agencies strategically compete with one another over the content and character of public policy. Using insights from the literature that explicitly models bureaucratic competition, the study adapts an existing model of policymaking in subsystems to gener…
Disparate Measures
Over the past two decades, many studies have investigated the scope and significance of performance measurement in public organizations. Nonetheless, there is more to learn about the challenges facing public managers who want to measure organizational outputs and use the feedback to improve performance. Specifically, managers are often faced with redundant measures of the same output, each of which may be preferred by a different political princi…
Reassessing Madison's Diversity Hypothesis
Scholars have long suggested that population diversity should serve as a check on majority tyranny, but empirical evidence for this diversity hypothesis is inconclusive. This essay suggests that mixed findings arise because of the way in which scholars have translated Madisonian writings into statistical tests. It argues that the Federalist papers actually suggest an interactive relationship, where diversity moderates the effectiveness of represe…
Fiscal Federalism and Budgetary Tradeoffs in the American States
Despite the massive scale of state-level budgeting, there currently exists no theoretically grounded and empirically sound examination of budgetary tradeoffs at this level of government. In order to provide such an examination, we extend a well-accepted approach to tradeoffs at the federal level in order to accommodate the unique intergovernmental aspects of state-level budgeting. We develop expectations that need for a good, ideology of state-le…
State Merit Amicus Participation and Federalism Outcomes in the U.S. Supreme Court
Research suggests that merit amicus curiae participation correlates with Supreme Court decision making and that states make frequent and effective use of this tool. To date, however, no study has adequately examined the relationship between state amicus participation and the federalism values reflected in the Court's decisions. This article dev"Lelops and finds evidence for the assertion that, when they cooperate in the amicus process, state part…
National Election Cycles and the Intermittent Political Safeguards of Federalism
Scholars have challenged the notion of “political safeguards of federalism” in a large and well-developed body of work on the use of coercive policy tools by the federal government. This study suggests, however, that there may be some utility in re-examining the political factors that help to constrain the growth of national power. Specifically, it argues that the need to win votes from subnational constituencies makes national lawmakers less sup…
The Impact of Program Design on Enrollment in State Children's Health Insurance Programs
The success of State Children's Health Insurance Programs (SCHIP) in expanding insurance coverage among low‐income children varies considerably across states. Scholars have looked to different program characteristics to explain this variation, but have arrived at disparate conclusions regarding the impact of one of the most significant design choices—the decision to create a new program or to pursue increased child health insurance rates through …
Fiscal Federalism and Tax Effort in the U.S. States
Scholars have long been interested in the politics of taxation in the U.S. states. Research in this area has not, however, sufficiently explored the impact of fiscal federalism on state-level taxing decisions. Drawing on theoretical models of fiscal choice, this study develops the expectation that, under certain conditions, federal grants-in-aid exert significant downward pressure on state-level tax effort. I test that assertion in an analysis of…
Exploring the Impact of School Discipline on Racial Disproportion in the Juvenile Justice System
It is widely recognized that African‐American youth are significantly overrepresented in many juvenile justice systems relative to their population percentages. Research has also determined that similar disproportion exists in school discipline and speculated about a “school‐to‐prison pipeline” for minority youth. Objective. This study explores empirically the degree to which disciplinary decisions made in schools can help to explain observed rat…
The Politics of Diffusion
Numerous studies have investigated the diffusion of public policies, often focusing on the ways in which learning among governments influences that process. We know relatively little, however, about those policies that diffuse very rapidly, rather than in the familiar S-shaped distribution associated with policy learning, or about what causes variation in temporal diffusion patterns. This study focuses on policy characteristics as a way to develo…
Race, Region, and Representative Bureaucracy
Scholars of representative bureaucracy have long been interested in the linkage between passive representation in public agencies and the pursuit of specific policies designed to benefit minority groups. Research in this area suggests that the structural characteristics of those organizations, the external political environment, and the perceptions of individual bureaucrats each help to facilitate that relationship. Work to date has not, however,…
Dynamic Representation(s)
Political science (55 works) · Economics (36 works) · Law (31 works) · Law (29 works) · Politics (27 works) · Business (24 works) · Public Administration (22 works) · Public economics (22 works) · Computer Science (20 works) · Electoral Systems and Political Participation (20 works)