An Analysis of Studies Testing Digital Interventions to Inoculate Against Misinformation

A Systematic Review

Bibliographic Data

ID17537019
AuthorsDaniel Loughnan (0009-0009-8963-0749, Radboud University, Nijmegen, The Netherlands, corresponding author), Aart Van Stekelenburg (0000-0002-9978-0224, Radboud University, Nijmegen, The Netherlands), J Loes Pouwels (0000-0002-9586-392X, Radboud University, Nijmegen, The Netherlands), Marieke L Fransen (0000-0003-3399-5932, Radboud University, Nijmegen, The Netherlands), Mariska Kleemans (0000-0003-0634-1298, Radboud University, Nijmegen, The Netherlands)
Year2026
Publication date2026-03-31
Peer ReviewedYes
Open AccessYes
TypeARTICLE
VenueCommunication Research (JOURNAL)
Journal identifiersISSN: 0093-6502 • E-ISSN: 1552-3810
PublisherSAGE Publishing (PUBLISHER • US)
DOI10.1177/00936502251411467
OpenAlexW7144299121
LanguageEN
Citations received1
References cited89

The proliferation of misinformation has stimulated research into games and videos to reduce susceptibility to misinformation via psychological inoculation. This research field applies several recent extensions of inoculation theory in novel ways, posing the question of whether such interventions are indeed producing inoculation effects. We conducted a systematic review ( k = 72) to establish the strength of the links between inoculation theory and the outcomes of the tests. We found that the studies did not pose hypotheses relating to the core factors of inoculation theory: threat conferral and counterarguing. Moreover, empirical designs and analyses have introduced confounding factors. Therefore, links between psychological inoculation theory and the tests are weak, and the question of whether the interventions inoculate remains unbroached. We recommend that future research include theoretically relevant variables in improved empirical tests and that researchers exercise caution in interpreting the results of existing studies as representative of psychological inoculation effects

Confounding · Core (optical fiber) · Empirical research · Intervention (counseling) · Misinformation · Nudge theory · Psychological intervention · Psychological Theory · Media Influence and Health · Misinformation and Its Impacts · Social Media and Politics