Andrew M Penner
Datos Biográficos
| ID | 130455 |
|---|---|
| NOMBRE | Andrew M Penner |
| NOMBRES | Andrew M |
| APELLIDO | Penner |
| FIRMA | PENNER A M |
| AFILIACIONES | University of California, Irvine |
| ORCID | 0000-0002-9483-8933 |
| VERIFICADO | Sí |
| TOTAL DE OBRAS | 57 |
| TOTAL DE CITAS | 992 |
| TOTAL COMO AUTOR | 57 |
| TOTAL COMO EDITOR | 0 |
| PRIMER AÑO DE PUBLICACIÓN | 2008 |
| AÑO MÁS RECIENTE DE PUBLICACIÓN | 2026 |
| ÍNDICE H | 15 |
Revolving School Doors? A Longitudinal Examination of Teacher, Administrator, and Staff Contributions to School Churn
Non-teaching staff comprise over half of all school employees, and their turnover may be consequential for school operation, culture, and student success, yet we lack evidence documenting their attrition. We use 17 years (2007–2023) of administrative data from Oregon to examine mobility and exit among teachers, administrators, paraprofessionals, licensed staff, and non-licensed staff. Although teacher turnover dominates turnover conversations, te…
Elementary school discipline lowers students’ sense of belonging
This study examines the relationship between student discipline receipt and students' perceptions of school among elementary school students in a large urban school district. Using a quasi-experimental regression discontinuity in time design leveraging the timing of disciplinary incidents around a districtwide climate survey, we estimate the short-term impact of school discipline on student-reported sense of belonging at school. We show that stud…
Marching into the Leadership Pipeline
The Reserve Officer Training Corps (ROTC) is the largest single source of military officers in the United States and a major pipeline for Americans to enter military leadership. Although ROTC offers fairly standardized scholarships, curricula, and career paths, the gender composition of ROTC cadets varies substantially across the 323 four-year host campuses. Nine of the 10 ROTC campuses that have the highest percentages of women among their gradu…
Strong Gender Contract, Weak Institutions
This article investigates the dynamics of the gender pay gap (GPG) in two post-socialist economies, Czechia and Slovenia, during their capitalist transition and EU membership. Using regression analysis on large samples of linked employer–employee data to estimate the total GPG and within-job GPG and institutional analysis, we find that in both countries women earn significantly less than men for the same work. We interpret this as due to institut…
Virtual charter students have worse labor market outcomes as young adults
Virtual charter schools are increasingly popular, yet there is little research on the long-term outcomes of virtual charter students. In this research note, we link statewide education records from 9th grade students in Oregon with information on criminal legal contact and IRS records containing earnings information housed at the U.S. Census Bureau to provide evidence on how virtual charter students fare as young adults. Virtual charter students …
Inequities in Student Exposure to Lead in Classroom Drinking Fountains
We use novel information about fixture-specific water lead levels (WLLs) in Portland, Oregon schools to explore inequalities in students’ potential for exposure to lead in drinking water at school. We find that Black and Hispanic students were in classrooms with higher WLLs than white students primarily because they attended different schools. The elevated exposure of students with non-English first languages was also largely driven by sorting in…
The Great Separation
Earnings segregation at work is an understudied topic in social science, despite the workplace being an everyday nexus for social mixing, cohesion, contact, claims making, and resource exchange. It is all the more urgent to study as workplaces, in the last decades, have undergone profound reorganizations that could affect the magnitude and evolution of earnings segregation. Analyzing linked employer-employee panel administrative databases, the au…
Estimating Firm-, Occupation-, and Job-Level Gender Pay Gaps with U.S. Linked Employer-Employee Population Data, 2005 to 2015
Merging 2005 to 2015 Internal Revenue Service, Social Security, and Census records, the authors calculate national average gender pay gaps for various population definitions and then decompose trends in the contribution of firm, occupation, and job segregation to these pay gaps, as well as the size of the average residual “within-job” pay gap. In general, observed segregation tends to explain about half of age, education, and hours of work adjust…
Identification in Interaction
Previous research has established that people shift their identities situationally and may come to subconsciously mirror one another. We explore this phenomenon among survey interviewers in the 2004-2018 General Social Survey by drawing on repeated measures of racial identification collected after each interview. We find not only that interviewers self-identify differently over time but also that their response changes cannot be fully explained b…
Author Correction
School Discipline and Racial Disparities in Early Adulthood
Despite interest in the contributions of school discipline to the creation of racial inequality, previous research has been unable to identify how students who receive suspensions in school differ from unsuspended classmates on key young adult outcomes. We utilize novel data to document the links between high school discipline and important young adult outcomes related to criminal justice contact, social safety net program participation, postseco…
Restorative for All? Racial Disproportionality and School Discipline Under Restorative Justice
A growing number of schools are adopting restorative justice (RJ) practices that de–emphasize exclusionary discipline and aim for racial equity. We examine student discipline as RJ programs matured in Meadowview Public Schools from 2008 to 2017. Our difference–in–difference estimates show that students in RJ schools experienced a profound decline in their suspension rates during the first 5 years of implementation. However, the benefits of RJ wer…
Within-job gender pay inequality in 15 countries
Extant research on the gender pay gap suggests that men and women who do the same work for the same employer receive similar pay, so that processes sorting people into jobs are thought to account for the vast majority of the pay gap. Data that can identify women and men who do the same work for the same employer are rare, and research informing this crucial aspect of gender differences in pay is several decades old and from a limited number of co…
Reining in Punitive Discipline
Concerns around disparities in suspensions and expulsions from schools in the United States have resulted in a concerted effort to reduce the use of exclusionary school discipline. In this article, the authors describe trends in the use of exclusionary discipline in Indiana and Oregon, two U.S. states with different school discipline policy climates. The findings point to a substantial decline in the use of suspensions and other forms of exclusio…
Trends in Women's and Men's College Majors across Four Decades in Norway
Women are now more likely to receive college degrees than men, yet important differences remain in the college majors of women and men. This visualization depicts women's and men's college majors across four decades in Norway. The authors document the movement of women into higher paying majors and show that men are increasingly majoring in fields that are gender integrated. However, women remain overrepresented in female-dominated majors, and me…
Rising between-workplace inequalities in high-income countries
Significance Understanding the causes of rising inequality is of concern in many countries. Using administrative data, we find that the share of inequality that is between workplaces is growing in 12 of 14 countries examined, and in no country has it fallen. Countries with declining employment protections see growth in both between- and within-workplace inequalities, but this impact is stronger for between-workplace inequalities. These results su…
Failing at Remediation? College Remedial Coursetaking, Failure and Long-Term Student Outcomes
Heterogeneous Effects of Early Algebra across California Middle Schools
How should schools assign students to more rigorous math courses so as best to help their academic outcomes? We identify several hundred California middle schools that used 7th-grade test scores to place students into 8th-grade algebra courses and use a regression discontinuity design to estimate average impacts and heterogeneity across schools. Enrolling in 8th-grade algebra boosts students' enrollment in advanced math in ninth grade by 30 perce…
Using Administrative Data for Social Science and Policy
Andrew M. Penner, Kenneth A. Dodge, Using Administrative Data for Social Science and Policy, RSF: The Russell Sage Foundation Journal of the Social Sciences, Vol. 5, No. 2, Using Administrative Data for Science and Policy (March 2019), pp. 1-18
Using Administrative Data for Social Science and Policy
Andrew M. Penner, Kenneth A. Dodge, Using Administrative Data for Social Science and Policy, RSF: The Russell Sage Foundation Journal of the Social Sciences, Vol. 5, No. 3, Using Administrative Data for Science and Policy (March 2019), pp. 1-18
Placing Racial Classification in Context
This article extends previous research on place-based patterns of racial categorization by linking it to sociological theory that posits subnational variation in cultural schemas and applying regression techniques that allow for spatial variation in model estimates. We use data from a U.S. restricted-use geocoded longitudinal survey to predict racial classification as a function of both individual and county characteristics. We first estimate nat…
Men's Overpersistence and the Gender Gap in Science and Mathematics
Large and long-standing gaps exist in the gender composition of science, technology, engineering, and mathematics (STEM) fields. Abundant research has sought to explain these gaps, typically focusing on women, though these gaps result from the decisions of men as well as women. Here we study gender differences in STEM persistence with a focus on men's choices, finding that men persist in these domains even where opting out could lead to greater m…
Is Free and Reduced-Price Lunch a Valid Measure of Educational Disadvantage
Students in the United States whose household income is less than 130% of the poverty line qualify for free lunch, and students whose household income is between 130% and 185% of the poverty line qualify for reduced-price lunch. Education researchers and policymakers often use free and reduced-price lunch (FRPL) status to measure socioeconomic disadvantage. But how valid is this measure? Linking IRS income tax data to school administrative record…
Better Together? Interracial Relationships and Depressive Symptoms
Previous research shows that married and cohabiting individuals are happier and enjoy greater levels of psychological well-being than single individuals. However, most of this research relies on data from intraracial-mostly white-couples, and less is known about the emotional health outcomes of individuals in interracial partnerships. This study uses fixed-effects regression to examine depressive symptoms among those transitioning into intraracia…
Weeded Out? Gendered Responses to Failing Calculus
Although women graduate from college at higher rates than men, they remain underrepresented in science, technology, engineering, and mathematics (STEM) fields. This study examines whether women react to failing a STEM weed-out course by switching to a non-STEM major and graduating with a bachelor’s degree in a non-STEM field. While competitive courses designed to weed out potential STEM majors are often invoked in discussions around why students …
Racial Fluidity and Inequality in the United States
The authors link the literature on racial fluidity and inequality in the United States and offer new evidence of the reciprocal relationship between the two processes. Using two decades of longitudinal data from a national survey, they demonstrate that not only does an individual’s race change over time, it changes in response to myriad changes in social position, and the patterns are similar for both self-identification and classification by oth…
Categorical Inequality
Despite their egalitarian ethos, schools are social sorting machines, creating categories that serve as the foundation of later life inequalities. In this review, we apply the theory of categorical inequality to education, focusing particularly on contemporary American schools. We discuss the range of categories that schools create, adopt, and reinforce, as well as the mechanisms through which these categories contribute to production of inequali…
Racial Formation in Perspective
Over the past 25 years, since the publication of Omi & Winant's Racial Formation in the United States, the statement that race is socially constructed has become a truism in sociological circles. Yet many struggle to describe exactly what the claim means. This review brings together empirical literature on the social construction of race from different levels of analysis to highlight the variety of approaches to studying racial formation processe…
From Motherhood Penalties to Husband Premia
Given the key role that processes occurring in the family play in creating gender inequality, the family is a central focus of policies aimed at creating greater gender equality. We examine how family status affects the gender wage gap using longitudinal matched employer-employee data from Norway, 1979-96, a period with extensive expansion of family policies. The motherhood penalty dropped dramatically from 1979 to 1996. Among men the premia for …
The Race of a Criminal Record
In the United States, racial disparities in incarceration and their consequences are widely discussed and debated. Previous research suggests that perceptions of crime and the operations of the criminal justice system play an important role in shaping how Americans think about race. This study extends the conversation by exploring whether being incarcerated affects how individuals perceive their own race as well as how they are perceived by other…
Is Free and Reduced-Price Lunch a Valid Measure of Educational Disadvantage
Students in the United States whose household income is less than 130% of the poverty line qualify for free lunch, and students whose household income is between 130% and 185% of the poverty line qualify for reduced-price lunch. Education researchers and policymakers often use free and reduced-price lunch (FRPL) status to measure socioeconomic disadvantage. But how valid is this measure? Linking IRS income tax data to school administrative record…
Race, color, and income inequality across the Americas
Racial inequality in the U.S. is typically described in terms of stark categorical difference, as compared to the more gradational stratification based on skin color often said to prevail in parts of Latin America. However, nationally representative data w
Making the Most of Multiple Measures
The majority of social science research uses a single measure of race when investigating racial inequality. However, a growing body of work demonstrates that race shapes the life chances of individuals in multiple ways, related not only to how people self-identify but also to how others perceive them. As multiple measures of race are increasingly collected and used in survey research, it becomes important to consider the best methods of leveragin…
Engendering Racial Perceptions
Intersectionality emphasizes that race, class, and gender distinctions are inextricably intertwined, but fully interrogating the co-constitution of these axes of stratification has proven difficult to implement in large-scale quantitative analyses. We address this gap by exploring gender differences in how social status shapes race in the United States. Building on previous research showing that changes in the racial classifications of others are…
Beyond the Looking Glass
Research has demonstrated the fluidity of racial self-identification and interviewer classification, but how they influence each other over time has not been systematically explored using national, longitudinal data. A typical theoretical prediction, consistent with theories of a 'looking-glass self,' is that people calibrate their self-identification in accordance with how they are perceived by others. We examine the degree to which this and oth…
Gender differences in mathematics achievement
Interrogating Race
We address long-standing debates on the utility of racial categories and color scales for understanding inequality in the United States and Latin America, using novel data that enable comparisons of these measures across both broad regions. In particular, we attend to the degree to which color and racial category inequality operate independently of parental socioeconomic status. We find a variety of patterns of racial category and color inequalit…
Disentangling the Effects of Racial Self-identification and Classification by Others
Scholars of race have stressed the importance of thinking about race as a multidimensional construct, yet research on racial inequality does not routinely take this multidimensionality into account. We draw on data from the U.S. National Longitudinal Study of Adolescent Health to disentangle the effects of self-identifying as black and being classified by others as black on subsequently being arrested. Results reveal that the odds of arrest are n…
The Male Marital Wage Premium
The authors examine whether male marital and parenthood premia arise due to differential pay by employers or from differential sorting of employees on occupations and establishments. They investigate these premia using matched employee-employer data from the period 1979-96 in Norway, a country with increased pressures on men to be more active in the family sphere and in which public policy has aimed at remaking the family institution. We find tha…
Gender Differences in Extreme Mathematical Achievement
Genetic and other biological explanations have reemerged in recent scholarship on the underrepresentation of women in mathematics and the sciences. This study engages this debate by using international data-including math achievement scores from the Third International Mathematics and Sciences Study and country-level data from the World Bank, the United Nations, the International Labour Organization, the World Values Survey, and the International…
Gender and the returns to attractiveness
Better Together? Interracial Relationships and Depressive Symptoms
Previous research shows that married and cohabiting individuals are happier and enjoy greater levels of psychological well-being than single individuals. However, most of this research relies on data from intraracial-mostly white-couples, and less is known about the emotional health outcomes of individuals in interracial partnerships. This study uses fixed-effects regression to examine depressive symptoms among those transitioning into intraracia…
School Discipline and Racial Disparities in Early Adulthood
Despite interest in the contributions of school discipline to the creation of racial inequality, previous research has been unable to identify how students who receive suspensions in school differ from unsuspended classmates on key young adult outcomes. We utilize novel data to document the links between high school discipline and important young adult outcomes related to criminal justice contact, social safety net program participation, postseco…
The Within-Job Motherhood Wage Penalty in Norway, 1979-1996
The motherhood wage penalty is a substantial obstacle to progress in gender equality at work. Using matched employer-employee data from Norway (1979-1996, N = 236,857 individuals, N = 1,027,462 individual-years), a country with public policies that promote combining family and career, we investigate (a) whether the penalty arises from differential pay by employers or from the sorting of employees on occupations and establishments and (b) changes …
Within-job gender pay inequality in 15 countries
Extant research on the gender pay gap suggests that men and women who do the same work for the same employer receive similar pay, so that processes sorting people into jobs are thought to account for the vast majority of the pay gap. Data that can identify women and men who do the same work for the same employer are rare, and research informing this crucial aspect of gender differences in pay is several decades old and from a limited number of co…
Men's Overpersistence and the Gender Gap in Science and Mathematics
Large and long-standing gaps exist in the gender composition of science, technology, engineering, and mathematics (STEM) fields. Abundant research has sought to explain these gaps, typically focusing on women, though these gaps result from the decisions of men as well as women. Here we study gender differences in STEM persistence with a focus on men's choices, finding that men persist in these domains even where opting out could lead to greater m…
Weeded Out? Gendered Responses to Failing Calculus
Although women graduate from college at higher rates than men, they remain underrepresented in science, technology, engineering, and mathematics (STEM) fields. This study examines whether women react to failing a STEM weed-out course by switching to a non-STEM major and graduating with a bachelor’s degree in a non-STEM field. While competitive courses designed to weed out potential STEM majors are often invoked in discussions around why students …
The Criminal Justice System and the Racialization of Perceptions
Recent research on how contact with the criminal justice system shapes racial perceptions in the United States has shown that incarceration increases the likelihood that people are racially classified by others as black, and decreases the likelihood that they are classified as white. We extend this work, using longitudinal data with information on whether respondents have been arrested, convicted, or incarcerated, and details about their most rec…
Do Women Managers Ameliorate Gender Differences in Wages? Evidence from a Large Grocery Retailer
Women's disadvantages in labor market outcomes are often attributed to the preponderance of men at or near the top of organizational hierarchies. While theories of homophily predict that women in positions of power ameliorate gender differences in wages for employees under them, status characteristics theory suggests that women face comparable disadvantages when working under men and women. Despite the existence of competing theoretical perspecti…
Reining in Punitive Discipline
Concerns around disparities in suspensions and expulsions from schools in the United States have resulted in a concerted effort to reduce the use of exclusionary school discipline. In this article, the authors describe trends in the use of exclusionary discipline in Indiana and Oregon, two U.S. states with different school discipline policy climates. The findings point to a substantial decline in the use of suspensions and other forms of exclusio…
How social status shapes race
We show that racial perceptions are fluid; how individuals perceive their own race and how they are perceived by others depends in part on their social position. Using longitudinal data from a representative sample of Americans, we find that individuals who are unemployed, incarcerated, or impoverished are more likely to be seen and identify as black and less likely to be seen and identify as white, regardless of how they were classified or ident…
Menns lønnspremie fra ekteskap
Race and Gender Differences in Wages
Previous work suggests that occupational sorting and differences in starting salary play a large role in race and gender wage gaps. This study uses unique data from the human resources department of a financial company to examine the role of occupational sorting in race and gender differences in initial salary offers. While this company exhibits large race and gender differences in salary offers, controlling for occupational differences accounts …
Gender Differences in Extreme Mathematical Achievement
Genetic and other biological explanations have reemerged in recent scholarship on the underrepresentation of women in mathematics and the sciences. This study engages this debate by using international data-including math achievement scores from the Third International Mathematics and Sciences Study and country-level data from the World Bank, the United Nations, the International Labour Organization, the World Values Survey, and the International…
Gender differences in mathematics achievement
Betydning av ekteskap og barn for kvinners lønn
The Race of a Criminal Record
In the United States, racial disparities in incarceration and their consequences are widely discussed and debated. Previous research suggests that perceptions of crime and the operations of the criminal justice system play an important role in shaping how Americans think about race. This study extends the conversation by exploring whether being incarcerated affects how individuals perceive their own race as well as how they are perceived by other…
The Within-Job Motherhood Wage Penalty in Norway, 1979-1996
The motherhood wage penalty is a substantial obstacle to progress in gender equality at work. Using matched employer-employee data from Norway (1979-1996, N = 236,857 individuals, N = 1,027,462 individual-years), a country with public policies that promote combining family and career, we investigate (a) whether the penalty arises from differential pay by employers or from the sorting of employees on occupations and establishments and (b) changes …
The Legacy of Equality and the Weakness of Law
Using firm-level data from the Czech Republic in the years 1998, 2002, and 2004, we examine whether the introduction of legislative measures for gender equality connected with the accession to the European Union had a significant effect on gender wage inequality. The central conclusion of our analysis is that within-job wage inequality plays a significant role in the Czech labour market, and that there were no substantive changes during the perio…
Looking the Part
It is commonly believed that race is perceived through another's facial features, such as skin color. In the present research, we demonstrate that cues to social status that often surround a face systematically change the perception of its race. Participants categorized the race of faces that varied along White-Black morph continua and that were presented with high-status or low-status attire. Low-status attire increased the likelihood of categor…
The Male Marital Wage Premium
The authors examine whether male marital and parenthood premia arise due to differential pay by employers or from differential sorting of employees on occupations and establishments. They investigate these premia using matched employee-employer data from the period 1979-96 in Norway, a country with increased pressures on men to be more active in the family sphere and in which public policy has aimed at remaking the family institution. We find tha…
Do Women Managers Ameliorate Gender Differences in Wages? Evidence from a Large Grocery Retailer
Women's disadvantages in labor market outcomes are often attributed to the preponderance of men at or near the top of organizational hierarchies. While theories of homophily predict that women in positions of power ameliorate gender differences in wages for employees under them, status characteristics theory suggests that women face comparable disadvantages when working under men and women. Despite the existence of competing theoretical perspecti…
Racial Fluidity and Inequality in the United States
The authors link the literature on racial fluidity and inequality in the United States and offer new evidence of the reciprocal relationship between the two processes. Using two decades of longitudinal data from a national survey, they demonstrate that not only does an individual’s race change over time, it changes in response to myriad changes in social position, and the patterns are similar for both self-identification and classification by oth…
Engendering Racial Perceptions
Intersectionality emphasizes that race, class, and gender distinctions are inextricably intertwined, but fully interrogating the co-constitution of these axes of stratification has proven difficult to implement in large-scale quantitative analyses. We address this gap by exploring gender differences in how social status shapes race in the United States. Building on previous research showing that changes in the racial classifications of others are…
Racial Formation in Perspective
Over the past 25 years, since the publication of Omi & Winant's Racial Formation in the United States, the statement that race is socially constructed has become a truism in sociological circles. Yet many struggle to describe exactly what the claim means. This review brings together empirical literature on the social construction of race from different levels of analysis to highlight the variety of approaches to studying racial formation processe…
Can we expect more of teachers? Comment on Robinson-Cimpian, Lubienski, Ganley, and Copur-Gencturk (2014)
Robinson-Cimpian, Lubienski, Ganley, and Copur-Gencturk (2014) use nationally representative longitudinal data on a cohort of kindergarten students to argue that teachers' gender biases play a substantial role in creating gender differences in mathematics achievement. In this comment, I first underscore the importance of unpacking the black box of mathematics and understanding how gender differences in specific mathematics skills are related to s…
Exploring international gender differences in mathematics self-concept
This study provides an international perspective on mathematics by examnnng mathematics self-concept, achievement, and the desire to enter a career involving mathematics among eighth graders in 49 countries. Using data from the Trends in International Mathematics and Science Study, this study shows that self-concept in mathematics is more closely related to the desire to enter a career using mathematics than achievement is. Further, while gender …
The Criminal Justice System and the Racialization of Perceptions
Recent research on how contact with the criminal justice system shapes racial perceptions in the United States has shown that incarceration increases the likelihood that people are racially classified by others as black, and decreases the likelihood that they are classified as white. We extend this work, using longitudinal data with information on whether respondents have been arrested, convicted, or incarcerated, and details about their most rec…
Being a Parent or Having a Parent? The Perceived Employability of Men and Women Who Take Employment Leave
We explore one way family caregiving shapes inequality at work by analyzing the evaluations of men and women who took employment leave to care for a newborn or elderly parents or to recover from a personal injury. Roughly 500 undergraduate students evaluated the employability, qualifications, responsibility, and adherence to leave policies of a fictitious applicant for a professional job. Evaluators rated fathers and male elder caregivers as the …
Race, color, and income inequality across the Americas
Racial inequality in the U.S. is typically described in terms of stark categorical difference, as compared to the more gradational stratification based on skin color often said to prevail in parts of Latin America. However, nationally representative data w
Beyond the Looking Glass
Research has demonstrated the fluidity of racial self-identification and interviewer classification, but how they influence each other over time has not been systematically explored using national, longitudinal data. A typical theoretical prediction, consistent with theories of a 'looking-glass self,' is that people calibrate their self-identification in accordance with how they are perceived by others. We examine the degree to which this and oth…
From Motherhood Penalties to Husband Premia
Given the key role that processes occurring in the family play in creating gender inequality, the family is a central focus of policies aimed at creating greater gender equality. We examine how family status affects the gender wage gap using longitudinal matched employer-employee data from Norway, 1979-96, a period with extensive expansion of family policies. The motherhood penalty dropped dramatically from 1979 to 1996. Among men the premia for …
Disentangling the Effects of Racial Self-identification and Classification by Others
Scholars of race have stressed the importance of thinking about race as a multidimensional construct, yet research on racial inequality does not routinely take this multidimensionality into account. We draw on data from the U.S. National Longitudinal Study of Adolescent Health to disentangle the effects of self-identifying as black and being classified by others as black on subsequently being arrested. Results reveal that the odds of arrest are n…
Curricular policy as a collective effects problem
Membership Has Its Privileges
Prizes - formal systems that publicly allocate rewards for exemplary behavior - play an increasingly important role in a wide array of social settings, including education. In this paper, we evaluate a prize system designed to boost achievement at two high schools by assigning students color-coded ID cards based on a previously low stakes test. Average student achievement on this test increased in the ID card schools beyond what one would expect …
Sociology (32 obras) · Psychology (28 obras) · Economics (22 obras) · Demographic economics (21 obras) · Gender Studies (20 obras) · Inequality (17 obras) · Political science (17 obras) · Mathematics (15 obras) · Social Psychology (15 obras) · Labor market dynamics and wage inequality (13 obras)